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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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Lifespan age differences in working memory: A two-component framework
Sander, M. C., Lindenberger, U., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2012) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.06.004 · Cited by 171
Hughes, M. L., Agrigoroaei, S., Jeon, M., Bruzzese, M., & Lachman, M. E. (2018) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617718000425 · Cited by 177
“In the past two decades a substantial body of research has documented age-related declines in cognitive abilities among adults over 60 (e.g., Craik & Salthouse, 2008; Hofer & Alwin, 2008; Karlamangla et al., 2009; Salthouse, 1996; Schaie, 1994; Hultsch, Hertzon, & Dixon 1990).”
Grydeland, H., Vértes, P. E., Váša, F., Romero-García, R., Whitaker, K. J., Alexander‐Bloch, A. F., Bjørnerud, A., Patel, A. X., Sederevičius, D., Tamnes, C. K., et al. (2018) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhy330 · Cited by 156
Color-Word Stroop test performance across the adult life span
Uttl, B., & Graf, P. (1997) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639708403869 · Cited by 166
Working memory and Stroop interference: An individual differences investigation
Long, D. L., & Prat, C. S. (2002) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195290 · Cited by 165
“These factors include constraints on the amount of activationavailable to the working-memory system (Engle, Cantor, & Carullo, 1992; Just & Carpenter, 1992; Lovett, Reder, & Lebiere, 1999), similarity-based interference (Schneider, 1999; Young& Lewis, 1999), processing speed (Kieras, Meyer, Mueller, & Seymour, 1999; S…”
BackgroundMemory-related EEG power and coherence reductions in mild Alzheimer's disease
Hogan, M., Swanwick, G., Kaiser, J., Rowan, M. J., & LAWLOR, B. A. (2003) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/s0167-8760(03)00118-1 · Cited by 164
Modeling the dynamic hypotheses of Gf–Gc theory using longitudinal life-span data
McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Meredith, W. H., & Bradway, K. P. (2000) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(00)00036-4 · Cited by 167
Schoof, T., & Rosen, S. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00307 · Cited by 165
“Salthouse (1985, 1996) argued that age-related declines in cognitive function may be the result of “cognitive slowing.””
BackgroundMirelman, A., Weiss, A., Buchman, A. S., Bennett, D. A., Giladi, N., & Hausdorff, J. M. (2014) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.12734 · Cited by 176
Spaniol, J., Madden, D. J., & Voß, A. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.1.101 · Cited by 171
“Veiel and Storandt concluded that age differences in both episodic and semantic retrieval can be accounted for by a general slowing mechanism (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Madden, in press).”
BackgroundAge, resistance to change, and job performance
Kunze, F., Boehm, S. A., & Bruch, H. (2013) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-06-2013-0194 · Cited by 165
“…more resistant to change because of being in a maintenance career stage (Pogson et al., 2003) and possessing less fluid intellectual abilities (e.g. Salthouse, 1996), or negative, assuming that older workers are less resistant to change because of more pronounced SOC behaviors (Abraham and…”
BackgroundFein, G., McGillivray, S., & Finn, P. (2007) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561770707052x · Cited by 160
“For instance, older adults deliberate less when solving problems and have lower working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, and speed of information processing (Johnson, 1990; Kim et al., 2002; MacPherson et al., 2002; Salthouse, 1996; Schaie & Willis, 1999).”
BackgroundPark, D. C., Nisbett, R. E., & Hedden, T. (1999) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/54b.2.p75 · Cited by 161
“…of progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms underlying age-related variance in many types of memory performance (Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996), so the present approach allows us to specify the particular mechanisms controlling observed cultural similarities and differences…”
BackgroundInfluentialLatent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood.
Finkel, D., Reynolds, C. A., McArdle, J. J., Gatz, M., & Pedersen, N. L. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.535 · Cited by 158
Cultural variation in verbal versus spatial neuropsychological function across the life span.
Hedden, T., Park, D. C., Nisbett, R. E., Ji, L., Jing, Q., & Jiao, S. (2002) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.16.1.65 · Cited by 180
“The two most commonly studied indicators of cognitive aging are measures of speed of processing (Salthouse, 1996) and of working memory (Baddeley, 1986).”
BackgroundCansino, S. (2008) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.005 · Cited by 159
“A generalized slowing down in cognitive processing with age has been extensively accepted (Salthouse,1996).”
BackgroundPires, L., Leitão, J., Guerrini, C., & Simões, M. R. (2014) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-014-9275-4 · Cited by 171
“Additionally, they identified greater reaction times to both No-go and Go trials in older adults, which supports the age-related general slowing hypothesis (Salthouse 1996).”
Endogenous sex hormone levels and cognitive function in aging men
Muller, M., Aleman, A., Grobbee, D. E., de Haan, E. H. F., & van der Schouw, Y. T. (2005) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000153072.54068.e3 · Cited by 162
“3 There is evidence that a preclinical or subclinical phase of reduced cognitive function, including information-processing speed, 4,5 precedes the appearance of diagnosed dementia by at least 10 years.”
The Relationship between Aging, Performance, and the Neural Correlates of Successful Memory Encoding
Duverne, S., Motamedinia, S., & Rugg, M. D. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn122 · Cited by 172
Hartog, H. M. D., Derix, M. M. A., van Bemmel, A. L., Kremer, B., & Jolles, J. (2003) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170300833x · Cited by 160
“Interestingly, in the field of cognitive ageing research, Salthouse and others (Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Salthouse, 1996) argued that the speed of information processing should be considered a resource for cognitive functioning.”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Pain and Mental Flexibility in Older Adult Pain Clinic Patients
Karp, J. F., Reynolds, C. F., Butters, M. A., Dew, M. A., Mazumdar, S., Begley, A. E., Lenze, E. J., & Weiner, D. K. (2006) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00212.x · Cited by 167
Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412459513 · Cited by 159
“Might these three factors reflect a single, general speed of processing (Fry & Hale, 1996; Salthouse, 1996), or do they reflect distinct rates of processing, as suggested by Cowan et al. (1998)?”
BackgroundMol, M. E. M., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Willems, D., & Jolles, J. (2006) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.1487 · Cited by 160
“It has been amply documented that slower information processing due to aging can cause slower rehearsal and impoverishment of information, resulting in a poorer memory performance (Salthouse, 1980; 1992; 1996).”
Soumaré, A., Tavernier, B., Alpérovitch, A., Tzourio, C., & Elbaz, A. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glp077 · Cited by 159
Choice Inconsistencies Among the Elderly: Evidence from Plan Choice in the Medicare Part D Program
Abaluck, J., & B, J. G. A. (2009) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w14759 · Cited by 162
GWAS for executive function and processing speed suggests involvement of the CADM2 gene
Ibrahim-Verbaas, C. A., Bressler, J., Debette, S., Schuur, M., Smith, A. V., Bis, J. C., Davies, G., Trompet, S., Smith, J. A., Wolf, C., et al. (2016) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2015.37 · Cited by 147
Use it or lose it? Wii brain exercise practice and reading for domain knowledge.
Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., & Calderwood, C. C. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019277 · Cited by 163
“On average, as people reach middle-age and beyond, there are significant declines in abilities associated with speeded information processing (such as measures of fluid intelligence [Gf] -- see, e.g., Horn, 1989; Salthouse,1996).”
BackgroundAn Overview of Cognitive Impairment
Morley, J. E. (2018) · Clinics in Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.cger.2018.06.003 · Cited by 172
The role of covert retrieval in working memory span tasks: Evidence from delayed recall tests
McCabe, D. P. (2007) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2007.04.004 · Cited by 148
“…have emphasized the role of time-based forgetting in determining recall from complex span tasks, and do not predict a delayed recall advantage for items from complex, as compared to simple, span tasks (Baddeley, 1986; Bayliss et al., 2003; Byrne, 1998; Salthouse, 1996; Towse & Hitch, 1995).”
BackgroundImproving Cognitive Function in Older Adults: Nontraditional Approaches
Park, D. C., Gutchess, A. H., Meade, M. L., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2007) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/62.special_issue_1.45 · Cited by 159
“Speed is an important mediator of age-related variance in a broad range of cognitive processes (Park et al., 2002; Salthouse, 1996 ), so it has been quite disappointing that improving speed through training has not resulted in a global improvement in a range of cognitive processes—improvements have thus far been limit…”
BackgroundIt was the best of times, it was the worst of times: A psychophysiologist's view of cognitive aging
Fabiani, M. (2012) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01331.x · Cited by 161
“However, one of the most ubiquitous behavioral findings in aging is a slowing of responses, which has led Salthouse (1996) to propose a processing-speed theory of aging, according to which aging is characterized by a generalized slowing of functions.”
BackgroundGreller, M. M., & Simpson, P. (1999) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/s1053-4822(99)00023-6 · Cited by 160
Models of verbal working memory capacity: What does it take to make them work?
Cowan, N., Rouder, J. N., Blume, C. L., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0027791 · Cited by 187
Cumulative Lead Exposure and Cognitive Performance Among Elderly Men
Weisskopf, M. G., Proctor, S. P., Wright, R. O., Schwartz, J. D., Spiro, A., Sparrow, D., Nie, H., & Hu, H. (2006) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000248237.35363.29 · Cited by 159
“Resulting effects on synaptic transmission and plasticity could lead to circulating blood lead that impairs, for example, information storage mechanisms or processing speed, which has been suggested to impair performance on cognitive tests.(36) This latter could explain the inverse association we found between blood l…”
Newson, R. S., & Kemps, E. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/60.3.p113 · Cited by 157
“Collie, ShafizAntonacci, Maruff, Tyler, & Currie, 1999; Newson, Kemps, & Luszcz, 2003; Salthouse, 1996).”
Physical and Cognitive Activity and Exercise for Older Adults: A Review
Hogan, M. (2005) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ptg9-xdvm-yeta-mkxa · Cited by 156
“…1996 for reviews) and executive control (i.e., a sub-set of cognitive skills requiring effortful attention and the ability to manage one’s thoughts, memories, and actions in accordance with task-relevant goals; see e.g., Anderson & Craik, 2000; Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Salthouse, 1996; West, 1996).”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Age, Verbal Working Memory, and Language Comprehension.
DeDe, G., Caplan, D. N., Kemtes, K. A., & Waters, G. S. (2004) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.4.601 · Cited by 166
Isaacowitz, D. M., & Stanley, J. T. (2011) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-011-0113-6 · Cited by 172
“For example, it is well-documented that older adults exhibit slower reaction times, reduced working memory capacity, declines in executive functioning, and increased difficulty in inhibiting irrelevant information (Ba ¨ckman et al. 2001; Birren and Fisher 1995; Salthouse 1996; West 1996; Zacks et al. 2000).”
BackgroundAssociation Between Timed Up‐and‐Go and Memory, Executive Function, and Processing Speed
Donoghue, O. A., Horgan, F., Savva, G. M., Cronin, H., O’Regan, C., & Kenny, R. A. (2012) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.04120.x · Cited by 154
“These results suggest that slower processing speed is an important contributor to slower TUG and provide some support for the processing speed theory that age-associated declines in processing speed reflect a general constraint on all cognitive processing.(28) This theory suggests that many higher-level cognitive func…”
ResultExecutive Decline and Dysfunction Precedes Declines in Memory: The Women's Health and Aging Study II
Carlson, M. C., Xue, Q., Zhou, J., & Fried, L. P. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/gln008 · Cited by 160
Nouchi, R., Taki, Y., Takeuchi, H., Sekiguchi, A., Hashizume, H., Nozawa, T., Nouchi, H., & Kawashima, R. (2013) · AGE · doi:10.1007/s11357-013-9588-x · Cited by 155
Lemaire, P., Arnaud, L., & Lecacheur, M. (2004) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.467 · Cited by 161
“…on strategy execution correspond to an Age Complexity phenomena, robustly found in a wide variety of cognitive activities: Older adults are slower and less accurate in triggering and executing cognitive processes, especially on harder problems (see Salthouse, 1991, 1996, for a detailed discussion).”
BackgroundCaplan, D. N., DeDe, G., Waters, G. S., Michaud, J., & Tripodis, Y. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0021837 · Cited by 167
Functional significance of age-related differences in motor activation patterns
Riecker, A., Gröschel, K., Ackermann, H., Steinbrink, C., Witte, O. W., & Kastrup, A. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.021 · Cited by 153
“This finding fits well in the concept that reaction times within the motor system as well as in other cognitive domains tend to increase with subject age (Salthouse, 1996).”
ResultGlobal and domain-specific changes in cognition throughout adulthood.
Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021361 · Cited by 151
Aging and vision: changes in function and performance from optics to perception
Andersen, G. J. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1167 · Cited by 154
Multisensory Integration as a Window into Orderly and Disrupted Cognition and Communication
Wallace, M. T., Woynaroski, T. G., & Stevenson, R. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051112 · Cited by 174
“F or p er so na l u se o nl y. generalized slowing that has been seen in many studies of aging individuals (Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundLi, S., Aggen, S. H., Nesselroade, J. R., & Baltes, P. B. (2001) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000052782 · Cited by 153
“Although this view is compatible with the general slowing theory [53,54], it should not be over generalized to the”
MethodEnhancing the Cognitive Vitality of Older Adults
Kramer, A. F., & Willis, S. L. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00194 · Cited by 153
“A large number of mostly cross-sectional studies have found that age-related influences on different skills are highly related, prompting the suggestion that a common factor may be responsible for age-related declines (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSpringer, M. V., McIntosh, A. R., Winocur, G., & Grady, C. L. (2005) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.2.181 · Cited by 153
“Potential sources of this failing are secondary impairments in attention (Craik, 1983, 1986) and information processing (Salthouse, 1996) as well as a heightened susceptibility to interference (Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Winocur & Moscovitch, 1983).”
BackgroundModifiable Midlife Risk Factors for Late-Life Cognitive Impairment and Dementia
Hughes, T. F., & Ganguli, M. (2009) · Current Psychiatry Reviews · doi:10.2174/157340009788167347 · Cited by 155
Gender and education impact on brain aging: A general cognitive factor approach.
Proust‐Lima, C., Amieva, H., Letenneur, L., Orgogozo, J., Jacqmin‐Gadda, H., & Dartigues, J. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0012838 · Cited by 151
“On cross-sectional data, it has been shown that most of the age differences in performance on a variety of cognitive variables may be mediated by a common factor (Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Czaja, 2000).”
BackgroundAnstey, K. J., & Wood, J. M. (2011) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0023835 · Cited by 152
“Behavioral slowing that is ubiquitous with aging (Salthouse, 1996) has been associated with white matter changes (Gunning-Dixon & Raz, 2000) in the brains of healthy adults (Wen, Sachdev, Chen, & Anstey, 2006).”
BackgroundBhandari, A., Radhu, N., Farzan, F., Mulsant, B. H., Rajji, T. K., Daskalakis, Z. J., & Blumberger, D. M. (2016) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2016.05.363 · Cited by 172
Stojan, R., & Voelcker‐Rehage, C. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8050734 · Cited by 163
“In this vein, cognitive processing speed is discussed to mediate the effects of exercise on further cognitive functions and particularly on fluid cognitive functions [111].”
BackgroundHearing Loss and Cognition: What We Know and Where We Need to Go
Powell, D. S., Oh, E. S., Reed, N. S., Lin, F. R., & Deal, J. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.769405 · Cited by 172
“Decreased processing speed with age may lead to slower cognitive functioning overall as well as slower processing speed for sensory integration and perception (CHABA, 1988; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAccounting for cognitive aging: context processing, inhibition or processing speed?
Rush, B. K., Barch, D. M., & Braver, T. S. (2006) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580600680703 · Cited by 150
“It could be argued that the SRT measure used in the current study does not accurately represent " the speed with which many elementary cognitive operations can be performed " (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLevin, O., Fujiyama, H., Boisgontier, M. P., Swinnen, S. P., & Summers, J. J. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.04.001 · Cited by 158
Aging and a benefit of distractibility
Kim, S., Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194068 · Cited by 157
“This fundamental aspect of cognition—which predicts a wide array of higher order cognitive abilities—has been widely reported to show substantial slowing across the adult life span (see, e.g., Fry & Hale, 1996; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundDaselaar, S. M., Iyengar, V., Davis, S. W., Eklund, K., Hayes, S. M., & Cabeza, R. E. L. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht289 · Cited by 155
Mechanisms Underlying Age- and Performance-related Differences in Working Memory
Daffner, K. R., Chong, H., Sun, X., Tarbi, E. C., Riis, J. L., McGinnis, S. M., & Holcomb, P. J. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21540 · Cited by 161
“Consistent with the literature on aging, young subjects had faster RTs than old subjects (Salthouse, 1996).”
ResultSelection requirements during verb generation: differential recruitment in older and younger adults
Persson, J., Sylvester, C.-Y. C., Nelson, J. K., Welsh, K. M., Jonides, J., & Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.004 · Cited by 155
“As previously discussed, senior adults are selectively impaired in tasks with high demands on effortful processing and cognitive control (Hasher et al., 1991; Moscovitch and Winocur, 1995; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundThe Cognition of Deception: The Role of Executive Processes in Producing Lies
Gombos, V. A. (2006) · Genetic Social and General Psychology Monographs · doi:10.3200/mono.132.3.197-214 · Cited by 165
Schoene, D., Valenzuela, T., Toson, B., Delbaere, K., Severino, C., Garcia, J. A., Davies, T. A., Russell, F., Smith, S., & Lord, S. R. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145161 · Cited by 150
“Reduced processing speed has been suggested as a major contributor to cognitive aging [1] and is associated with falls in older people [41,42].”
Backgroundder Linden, M. V., Hupet, M. M., Feyereisen, P., Schelstraete, M., Bestgen, Y., Bruyer, R., Lories, G., Ahmadi, A. E., & Seron, X. (1999) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1076/anec.6.1.32.791 · Cited by 145
“First, the processing speed hypothesis states that a reduction in the speed with which cognitive operations can be executed strongly contributes to age-related differences observed with many measures of cognition (Birren & Fisher, 1995; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundCepeda, N. J., Blackwell, K. A., & Munakata, Y. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12024 · Cited by 166
“…stable within individuals (Hogarty, Flesher, Ulrich, Carter, Greenwald, PogueGeile, Kechavan, Cooley, DiBarry, Garrett, Parepally & Zoretich, 2004; Salthouse, 1996), across tasks (Dougherty & Haith, 1997; see also Kail, 2000), and across time (Schaie, 1989), there is little explicit mention in…”
BackgroundInfluentialAge trends for failures of sustained attention.
Carriere, J. S. A., Cheyne, J. A., Solman, G. J. F., & Smilek, D. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019363 · Cited by 169
Effects of aging on eye movements in the real world
Dowiasch, S., Marx, S., Einhäuser, W., & Bremmer, F. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00046 · Cited by 149
Mishra, R. K., Singh, N., Pandey, A., & Huettig, F. (2012) · Journal of Eye Movement Research · doi:10.16910/jemr.5.1.3 · Cited by 159
“Salthouse (1996) for instance has pointed out that "performance in many cognitive tasks is limited by general processing constraints, in addition to restrictions of knowledge (declarative, procedural, and strategic), and variations in efficiency or effectiveness of specific”
BackgroundAssociation of Aortic Stiffness With Cognition and Brain Aging in Young and Middle-Aged Adults
Pase, M. P., Himali, J. J., Mitchell, G. F., Beiser, A., Maillard, P., Tsao, C. W., Larson, M. G., DeCarli, C. S., Vasan, R. S., & Seshadri, S. S. (2016) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.115.06610 · Cited by 148
Peng, P., Wang, C., & Namkung, J. M. (2018) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654317753350 · Cited by 160
“…speed is the speed a person can encode, transform, and retrieve information (Conway, Cowan, Bunting, Therriault, & Minkoff, 2002) and is often operationalized as the speed of responding to simple tasks in which everyone would answer correctly if there were no time limits (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSliwinski, M. J., Hofer, S. M., Hall, C. B., Herman Buschke, L., & Lipton, R. B. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.658 · Cited by 147
“The implicit view motivating such theoretical endeavors is that all or at least most of age-related cognitive loss is attributable to a single or small number of processes experienced by all aging adults (e.g., Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAge-Related Attenuation of Dominant Hand Superiority
Kalisch, T., Wilimzig, C., Kleibel, N., Tegenthoff, M., & Dinse, H. R. (2006) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000090 · Cited by 146
“The age related-decline may be the result of a general slowing down of central cognitive processes [29,32,33] which is assumed to affect the motor performance of less coordinated repetitive movements, like those in a tapping task [34,35].”
BackgroundTheoretical approaches to language and aging
Burke, D. M., MacKay, D. G., & James, L. E. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198524380.003.0008 · Cited by 148
Response Inhibition Predicts Poor Antidepressant Treatment Response in Very Old Depressed Patients
Sneed, J. R., Roose, S. P., Keilp, J. G., Krishnan, K. R. R., Alexopoulos, G. S., & Sackeim, H. A. (2007) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3180302513 · Cited by 146
Dairy constituents and neurocognitive health in ageing
Camfield, D., Owen, L., Scholey, A. B., Pipingas, A., & Stough, C. K. K. (2011) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114511000158 · Cited by 151
Chiu, H., Chu, H., Tsai, J.-C., Liu, D., Chen, Y.-R., Yang, H.-L., & Chou, K. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176742 · Cited by 162
Young, E. S., Griskevicius, V., Simpson, J. A., Waters, T. E. A., & Mittal, C. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000124 · Cited by 144
“Psychologists have long been interested in working memory, documenting how it is affected by age (Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991), disrupted by distractions and interference (Engle,”
BackgroundFrom junior to senior Pinocchio: A cross-sectional lifespan investigation of deception
Debey, E., Schryver, M. D., Logan, G. D., Suchotzki, K., & Verschuère, B. (2015) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.06.007 · Cited by 159
“, 2002; Ridderinkhof, Band, & Logan, 1999), and contrast with the hypothesis that only global differences in speed would underlie age-related differences in executive control (Salthouse, 1996).”
Li, L., Daneman, M., Qi, J. G., & Schneider, B. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.30.6.1077 · Cited by 157
Reduced neural selectivity increases fMRI adaptation with age during face discrimination
Goh, J. O. S., Suzuki, A., & Park, D. C. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.107 · Cited by 157
“Thus, dedifferentiation is potentially also a source of age-related slowing observed in behavioral studies (Ratcliff et al., 2003; Salthouse, 1996).”
The structure of working memory abilities across the adult life span.
Hale, S., Rose, N. S., Myerson, J., Strube, M., Sommers, M. S., Tye‐Murray, N., & Spehar, B. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0021483 · Cited by 154
Thalamic volume predicts performance on tests of cognitive speed and decreases in healthy aging
van der Werf, Y. D., Tisserand, D. J., Visser, P. J., Hofman, P. A. M., Vuurman, E. F. P. M., Uylings, H. B. M., & Jolles, J. (2001) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(01)00010-6 · Cited by 144
High Degree of Dilated Virchow-Robin Spaces on MRI is Associated with Increased Risk of Dementia
Zhu, Y., Dufouil, C., Soumaré, A., Mazoyer, B. M., Chabriat, H., & Tzourio, C. (2010) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2010-100378 · Cited by 141
“The TMT-A assesses psychomotor speed [11], while the TMT-B measures executive function [12,13].”
Raz, N., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., & Land, S. J. (2009) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0013487 · Cited by 141
“Age-related differences are most prominent in speed of processing (Salthouse, 1996), executive functions (Fisk & Sharp, 2004; Treitz, Heyder, & Daum, 2007), and episodic memory (Verhaeghen, Marcoen, & Goossens, 1993).”
BackgroundEffects of Training of Processing Speed on Neural Systems
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Nagase, T., Nouchi, R., & Kawashima, R. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2948-11.2011 · Cited by 153
“Processing speed (PS) is individual cognitive ability measured by how fast individuals execute cognitive tasks, particularly elementary cognitive tasks (e.g., Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundMeasuring Cognitive Distraction in the Automobile
Strayer, D. L., Cooper, J. M., Turrill, J., Coleman, J. R., Medeiros-Ward, N., & Biondi, F. N. (2013) · AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. · Cited by 159
Cochlear Implantation in Older Adults
Lin, F. R., Chien, W. W., Li, L., Clarrett, D. M., Niparko, J. K., & Francis, H. W. (2012) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0b013e31826b145a · Cited by 143
“A likely mechanistic explanation for this association is that top-down cognitive processing is required for auditory processing and decoding of the input provided by the CI,(127) and these cognitive resources are known to decline with age.(106,107) Our results also demonstrate that preoperative sentence scores were si…”
ResultWearable device adoption among older adults: A mixed-methods study
Farivar, S., Abouzahra, M., & Ghasemaghaei, M. (2020) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102209 · Cited by 161
“Speed theory suggests that aging reduces the information-processing speed, which leads to difficulties in cognitive functioning (e.g., Birren, Woods, & Williams, 1980; Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1996).”
Movement Science: Implicit and Explicit Processes during Acquisition of Functional Skills
Gentile, A. M. (1998) · Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.3109/11038129809035723 · Cited by 140
Processing speed in the 1st year of life: A longitudinal study of preterm and full-term infants.
Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., & Jankowski, J. J. (2002) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.38.6.895 · Cited by 141
Word-processing training and retraining: effects of adult age, experience, and interface
Charness, N., Kelley, C. L., Bosman, E. A., & Mottram, M. (2001) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.16.1.110 · Cited by 145
Anderson, C., & Horne, J. (2003) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/1469-8986.00038 · Cited by 138
Stress-related cognitive interference predicts cognitive function in old age.
Stawski, R. S., Sliwinski, M. J., & Smyth, J. M. (2006) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.535 · Cited by 137
“Two variations of Salthouse’s (1996) number”
Cognitive functioning, aging, and work: A review and recommendations for research and practice.
Fisher, G. G., Chaffee, D. S., Tetrick, L. E., Davalos, D. B., & Potter, G. G. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000086 · Cited by 163
“According to this theory, how long it takes one to perform complex cognitive operations is limited by the speed to process the additive substrates of these operations, and that slowed processing at lowerlevel stages may result in lost information when needed at higherlevel stages (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundParkin, A. J., & Java, R. I. (1999) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.13.4.539 · Cited by 140
Howard, D. V., & Howard, J. H. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196220 · Cited by 144
“Aging provides a good test case for this hypothesis, because there are age-related deficits in processing capacity, as assessed, for example, by working memory span and the speed of processing (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Zacks, Hasher, & Li, 2000).”
MethodSwanson, H. L. (2004) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195856 · Cited by 139
“This finding contrasts with studies in the adult aging literature (Salthouse, 1996).”
MethodResultCognitive dysfunction in first-episode psychosis: the processing speed hypothesis
Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Crespo‐Facorro, B., González‐Blanch, C., Pérez‐Iglesias, R., Vázquez‐Barquero, J. L., & PAFIP Group Study (2007) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.191.51.s107 · Cited by 138
Food Perception with Age and Its Relationship to Pleasantness
Kremer, S., Bult, J. H. F., Mojet, J., et al. (2007) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjm028 · Cited by 139
“For example, neuronal responses of the elderly generally slow down accompanied by an increase in stimulus persistence ( Salthouse 1996 ), and this might be accompanied by an increased persistence of the stimulus in the neural representation (Raz et al. 1990).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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