The DOI matches its Crossref record; 84 of the 84 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A theory of memory retrieval.
Abstract
A theory of memory retrieval is developed and is shown to apply over a range of experimental paradigms. Access to memory traces is viewed in terms of a resonance metaphor. The probe item evokes the search set on the basis of probe-memory item relatedness, just as a ringing tuning fork evokes sympathetic vibrations in other tuning forks. Evidence is accumulated in parallel from each probe-memory item comparison, and each comparison is modeled by a continuous random walk process. In item recognition, the decision process is self-terminating on matching comparisons and exhaustive on nonmatching comparisons. The mathematical model produces predictions about accuracy, mean reaction time, error latency, and reaction time distributions that are in good accord with experimental data. The theory is applied to four item recognition paradigms (Sternberg, prememorized list, study-test, and continuous) and to speed-accuracy paradigms; results are found to provide a basis for comparison of these paradigms. It is noted that neural network models can be interfaced to the retrieval theory with little difficulty and that semantic memory models may benefit from such a retrieval scheme.
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In the citing paper
“This model uses the RT distributions of both correct and incorrect responses to separate the decisional and nondecisional components of performance.”
From Cerebral White Matter Integrity Mediates Adult Age Differences in Cognitive Performance (2008) · cites this paper as Ratcliff, 1978
In the citing paper
“The diffusion model provides a decomposition of behavioral performance into cognitively-relevant latent variables representing the speed and accuracy of information processing (drift rate – ‘v’), the speed of perceptual and motor processes not directly related to the decision process (non-decision time – ‘t’) and a flexible measure of response caution (boundary separation – ‘a’; Ratcliff, 1978).”
From The Dynamics of Functional Brain Networks: Integrated Network States during Cognitive Task Performance (2016) · cites this paper as Ratcliff, 1978
In the citing paper
“The diffusion model is popular because of its simplicity yet proven success with fitting behavioral data in numerous human studies (Ratcliff, 1978; Busemeyer and Townsend, 1993; Smith and Ratcliff, 2004).”
From Decision Making in Recurrent Neuronal Circuits (2008) · cites this paper as Ratcliff, 1978
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, human studies commonly report skewed RT distributions with a long right tail, which is well captured by the diffusion model (Ratcliff, 1978; Luce, 1986; Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998; Usher and McClelland, 2001; Sigman and Dehaene, 2005) but not the existing neural circuit model.”
From Decision Making in Recurrent Neuronal Circuits (2008) · cites this paper as Ratcliff, 1978
In the citing paper
“The diffusion model assumes that a difference signal about the conflicting inputs is computed occurs at the input level (Ratcliff, 1978; Mazurek et al., 2003).”
From Decision Making in Recurrent Neuronal Circuits (2008) · cites this paper as Ratcliff, 1978
Citations
Cites
A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.407 · Cited by 8,141
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
High-speed scanning in human memory
Sternberg, S. (1966) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.153.3736.652 · Cited by 3,576
The Theory of Stochastic Processes
Cox, D. R., Miller, H. D., Weiss, G., & Shuler, K. (1966) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3047872 · Cited by 3,324
Retrieval time from semantic memory
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(69)80069-1 · Cited by 3,265
The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method
Sternberg, S. (1969) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(69)90055-9 · Cited by 3,137
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203780954 · Cited by 2,180
The Representation of Meaning in Memory
Anderson, J. R., & Kintsch, W. (1975) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421786 · Cited by 2,061
Anderson, J. R., Bower, G. H., & Bower, G. H. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203780831 · Cited by 2,031
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Nakahara, H., Nakamura, K., & Hikosaka, O. (2006) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2006.07.001 · Cited by 45
Interaction of raclopride and preparatory interval effects on simple reaction time performance
MacDonald, C. J., & Meck, W. H. (2006) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2006.08.004 · Cited by 44
Striatal activation reflects urgency in perceptual decision making
van Maanen, L., Fontanesi, L., Hawkins, G. E., & Forstmann, B. U. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.06.045 · Cited by 36
Effect of distracting faces on visual selective attention in the monkey
Landman, R., Sharma, J., Sur, M., & Desimone, R. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1420167111 · Cited by 43
Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Alderson, R. M., Tarle, S. J., Raiker, J. S., & Sarver, D. E. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0504-9 · Cited by 42
“In the second Tier, we used the Ratcliff (1978) diffusion model to test the study’s primary hypotheses and examine potential cognitive mechanisms underlying these effects to evaluate support for dual task and performance adjustment predictions.”
MethodDissociating early and late error signals in perceptual recognition
Wheeler, M. E., Petersen, S. E., Nelson, S. M., Ploran, E. J., & Velanova, K. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20155 · Cited by 30
From bad to worse: Symbolic equivalence and opposition in fear generalisation
Bennett, M., Hermans, D., Dymond, S., Vervoort, E., & Baeyens, F. (2015) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.973833 · Cited by 27
LoTemplio, S. B., Lopes, C. L., McDonnell, A. S., Scott, E. E., Payne, B. R., & Strayer, D. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1150244 · Cited by 25
Nakayama, K., Moher, J., & Song, J.-H. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021422-043229 · Cited by 21
Cochrane, A., Sims, C. R., Bejjanki, V. R., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00168-9 · Cited by 20
Colas, J. T., O’Doherty, J. P., & Grafton, S. T. (2024) · PLOS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011950 · Cited by 6
Theoretical Analysis of Resource-Induced Phase Transitions in Estimation Strategies
Tottori, T., & Kobayashi, T. J. (2026) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/5ynb-7k4v
Metadata
- Authors
- Ratcliff, R.
- Affiliations
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ratcliff, Roger
- ORCID
- Ratcliff, Roger
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1978-03
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 59-108
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2098205603
- Cited by
- 4,513
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 176 · 2025: 226 · 2024: 242 · 2023: 237 · 2022: 237 · 2021: 275 · 2020: 268 · 2019: 263 · 2018: 220 · 2017: 191 · 2016: 198 · 2015: 204 · 2014: 198 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 18.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- memory retrieval, item recognition, decision processes, Sternberg paradigm, speed-accuracy trade-off, reaction time distribution, neural network model
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