Attention gating in short-term visual memory.

“Using a cost-benefit paradigm (reviewed in Posner, 1980), Shulman, Remington, and McLean (1979) found that a valid cue presented 150 ms or more before a target speeded reaction time more than did an invalid cue and argued that attention could shift over the visual field without eye movements.”

“…retouch theory seems compatible with the psychophysical proactive contrast enhancement effect as well as with some other similar forward facilitation effects found in the area of visual attention research (Sokolov, 1963; Eriksen and St James, 1986; Possamai, 1986; Reeves and Sperling, 1986).”

“Reeves and Sperling (1986), and later Weichselgartner and Sperling (1987) used the attentional gating paradigm to measure the speed of visual attention.”

“Although this original experiment was not designed with spatial attentional orienting effects in mind, benefits suggested that information in iconic memory can be successfully selected on the bases of attentional cues and biased for efficient recall (Reeves & Sperling, 1986 ).”

“This is not merely a theoretical possibility but an empirically justified one because letter migration errors are common in RSVP (e.g., Reeves & Sperling, 1986) as well as BSVP (e.g., Mozer, 1983).”

“When the observer has to shift attention spatially from the target location to the location of the to-bereported stream, the most frequently reported item occurs about 300 to 400 ms after the target onset (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“Accordingly, we consider perceptual processing as a process of evidence accumulation, during which activation of sensory representations is continuously strengthened (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“known to be a relatively slow process since the studies by Reeves and Sperling (1986) and Sperling and Reeves”

“When visual information is scanned very quickly, subjects can later recall information limited to the 200–500 ms following stimulus presentation.(205) Subjects remember little, if any, of this information a short time later.”

“The attention cascade model uses an architecture similar to those seen in cognitive accounts of AB and employs computational details from theories of attention gating (Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Shih & Sperling, 2002; Sperling & Weichselgartner , 1995).”

“For example, Reeves and Sperling (1986) used a task similar to the attentional blink task but with two simultaneous streams, one consisting of letters, the other consisting of digits.”

“…with spatial shifts of auditory or visual attention was measured using a modified version of the rapid serial presentation task devised by Yantis et al. [2002; see Reeves and Sperling 1986, for the original perceptual version of the task] and its auditory equivalent [Shomstein and Yantis, 2006].”

“The luminance of the red grating modulated between 16.1 and 53.7 cd/m2 and the luminance of the green grating between 16.7 and 52.7 cd/m2.”

“…to explore the temporal characteristics of information processing (Broadbent and Broadbent, 1987; Chun and Potter, 1995; Raymond et al., 1992; Reeves and Sperling, 1986; Shapiro et al., 1994; Ward and Duncan, 1996; Weichselgartner and Sperling, 1987; see also Shapiro et al., 1997 for a…”

“For example, studies of short-term memory show that stimuli presented 200–700 msec after a target stimulus have the best chance of being remembered (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“In an RSVP task, a series of similar items (e.g., letters) are displayed rapidly in the same spatial location (Reeves and Sperling, 1986; Shapiro, 1994; Chun and Potter, 1995).”

“Hence, it is unsurprising that using shift cues which take longer to interpret results in longer estimates of shift times (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“This time-course is consistent with that of a covert shift of attention (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“At a conceptual level, this selection process functions similar to the hypothesized attentional gate that is common to many theories of visual perception (e.g., Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“Presumably a dynamic attention process, similar to the ‘shut-andlock’ mechanism in detection [35,36] takes place at around a 300 ms delay, establishing a persisting memory trace.”

“Yet it may take some time to switch attention to different locations (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“We used rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigms, which have been used extensively in the literature to explore the temporal characteristics of information processing (Broadbent & Broadbent, 1987; Chun & Potter, 1995; Raymond, Shapiro, & Arnell, 1992; Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Shapiro, Raymond, & Arnell, 1994;…”

“This is in contrast to earlier studies, (e.g., Weichselgartner & Sperling, 1987; Duncan, Ward, & Shapiro, 1994; and Reeves & Sperling, 1986 ) in which the subject encodes a first target before attention is diverted to another location, resulting in a prolonged attentional dwell time of up to several hundred millisecon…”

“Such gain models have been developed extensively in the work of Sperling and colleagues (e.g., Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Sperling & Weichselgartner, 1995) and have recently been extended using linear systems theory (Blaser, Sperling, & Lu, 1999; Gobell, Tseng, & Sperling, 2004) and the analysis of external noise (Doshe…”

“... position of subsequent targets in relation to T1. With this paradigm, despite use of a diverse range of stimuli and response formats, the behavioral outcome is now well documented: Presenting T2 in close temporal proximity to T1 has a deleterious effect on participants’ ability to carry out the T2 task for targets…”

“An early model of reactive dynamic attention is the attention gating model 45,191,192 .”

“Everyday observation leads us to expect that the order in which we perceive events is the order in which they occur (Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“, search for red among pink distractors is faster than for pink among red) appear to violate any distance metric, but Rosenholtz (2001b) showed that the appearance of asymmetry disappears when the background is taken into account.”

“Sperling and Weichselgartner (1995; see also Weichselgartner & Sperling, 1987) extended the AGM of Reeves and Sperling (1986) into an episodic theory of the dynamics of spatial attention (ETDSA), which describes the time course of visual attention as a sequence of discrete attentional episodes.”

“Indeed, it is possible that this bias is the major contribution to the prior entry effect (Matthews, Welch, Festa, & Clement, 2013; Reeves & Sperling 1986; Shore et al., 2001; Schneider & Bavelier, 2003; Spence & Parise, 2010).”

“If the two targets are displayed within a critical temporal interval, identification is nearly perfect for the first but is substantially reduced for the second (Broadbent & Broadbent, 1987; Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“We have recently investigated this possibility measuring the apparent separation between two visual stimuli manipulating the subjects' attention with a dual task design (Reeves and Sperling 1986).”

“The classic work by Sperling and colleagues (Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Sperling & Weichselgartner, 1995; Weich selgartner & Sperling, 1987), using a paradigm very similar to that of the AB, has shown that well-trained observers receiving a cue to switch streams need around 200–250 msec to reach…”

“Some prior evidence for this interaction was presented by Visser and Enns (2001). They assessed how the availability of attentional resources affects temporal integration, using a modified version of the missing element task (MET; e.”

“…across locations is ruled out by our experimental design with stimulus durations of 164 ms as previous experiments have demonstrated minimum switching times in the range of 200 to 500 ms ~Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Weichselgartner & Sperling, 1987; Peterson & Juola, 2000; Duncan et al., 1994!.”

“Selective attention denotes the allocation of limited processing resources to some stimuli or tasks at the expense of others (Dosher, Sperling, & Wurst, 1986; Kowler, Anderson, Dosher, & Blaser, 1995; Norman & Bobrow, 1975; Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Shaw, 1982, 1984).”

“Similar experiments performed using the rapid visual serial presentation (RSVP) paradigm have estimated the time shift for top-down goal-directed attention to lie between 300 and 500 ms (Reeves and Sperling 1986).”

“The orienting model is an elaboration of an earlier model described by Smith, Ratcliff, et al. (2004), which was inspired by the model of Reeves and Sperling (1986).”

“Taken together, these results may suggest an important role of nonlinear modulation to support attentional gating which selectively processes information from lower to higher visual areas [45].”

“…stream, suggesting that selection is rendered systematically inaccurate, ‘‘delayed” (see also Chun, 1997; Popple & Levi, 2007) note that this delay is different than the general latency of the attentional gate (Reeves & Sperling, 1986) as it is caused by the interaction of two selection episodes.”

“One mechanism that has been proposed to cause order errors at Lag 1 is precedence or prior entry (Olivers, Hilkenmeier, & Scharlau, 2011; Reeves & Sperling, 1986; see also Shore, Spence, & Klein, 2001; Titchener, 1908; Vibell, Klinge, Zampini, Spence, & Nobre, 2007), by which a stimulus that is…”

“James 1986), a spotlight that moves (Tsal 1983), a gate (Reeves and Sperling 1986), or a selective, amplifying channel (La Berge 1995), imply all that it is seen as a privileged route for events to enter our mind or consciousness, that is, as a kind of mechanism which, letting information come in and be processed by s…”

“…position in the RSVP stream of a reported item relative to the cued target—can reveal properties of the attentional processes underlying temporal selection (Chun, 1997; Martini, 2013; Popple & Levi, 2007; Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Vul, Hanus, & Kanwisher, 2008; Vul, Nieuwenstein, & Kanwisher, 2008).”

“In this paper, we built upon the insights of “diachronic” computational models (e.g., Reeves & Sperling, 1986; Wyble et al., 2009) and presented the case for an alternative unified diachronic account of attentional selectivity (UDAS).”

“For a wide variety of emotionally neutral materials, observers showed reduced report accuracy for the second target when it was preceded by another attended target within a temporal distance of 100–400 ms (e.g., Broadbent & Broadbent, 1987; Raymond, Shapiro, & Arnell, 1992; Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“Additionally, we found no evidence for the capacity limitation of visual attention or short-term memory suggested by Verghese and Pelli (1994) and others (Alvarez & Cavanagh , 2004; Reeves & Sperling, 1986).”

“This discrepancy could be due to the fact that the type of attentional control employed in typical visual search tasks differs from the top-down control processes that were investigated by Reeves & Sperling (1986) and in the commanded search task of Horowitz et al. (2009).”