Illusions of Competence in Monitoring One's Knowledge During Study.

“The monitoring component is responsible for assessing the mind’s basic mental processes (Dunlosky & Nelson, 1992; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat & Ma'ayan, 2005; Serra & Dunlosky, 2005; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).”

“These analyses were conducted across all experiments, and each demonstrated reliable illusion of competence patterns for backward associates that were consistent with previous findings (i.e., JOLs overpredicted recall of this pair type; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Maxwell & Huff, 2021).”

“…2001; Koriat & Ma’ayan, 2005); the underlying bases of JOLs (Koriat, 1997; Koriat et al., 2004); when JOLs are accurate or inaccurate (Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Rhodes & Castel, 2009); how timing of JOLs (immediate vs. delayed) affects their accuracy (Kimball & Metcalfe, 2003; Nelson & Dunlosky,…”

“Data from the current experiments are consistent with prior metacognitive research demonstrating discrepancies between memory performance and metamemory awareness (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat et al., 2004; Rhodes & Castel, 2008, 2009; Tauber & Rhodes, 2010).”

“Thus, JOLs often align with actual recall for related and unrelated words (cf., Koriat & Bjork, 2005, 2006).”

“The first was to obtain evidence for the hypothesis that prediction inflation results in part from a backward activation in which the outcome brings to the fore aspects of the condition that are less likely to come forward when that outcome is not stated (see Koriat & Bjork, 2005 ).”

“…strategies, ones that support experiences of ease rather than capitalizing on chances for learning through difficulty, failures, and confusion (Bjork et al., 2013; D’Mello et al., 2014; Dunning et al., 2003; Karpicke et al., 2009; Kirk-Johnson et al., 2019; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Yan et al., 2016b).”

“More importantly, results of Experiment 2, observed in immediate serial recall, differ from typical results in paired-associate learning showing that forward long-term associations are more effective than backward associations (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Eight critical melodies were used throughout the acquisition phase (four under fixed-order, four under random-order), and one melody was used for the practice phase (before the acquisition phase).”

“A classic example is that of an instructor whose familiarity with the material that he has to teach makes him believe that the material is easy for the students, and that he has succeeded in communicating that material to the students (see Koriat and Bjork 2005 ).”

“Illusions of understanding can be a result of a foresight bias (Koriat & Bjork, 2005), which occurs when predictions about one’s future test performance with regard to certain material are made in the presence of that material.”

“Furthermore, people are often not aware that they are at risk of forgetting (Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007; Koriat & Bjork, 2005), and many are overconfident about their future memory (Koriat, Bjork, Sheffer, & Bar, 2004; Kornell & Bjork, 2009).”

“Koriat and Bjork (2005) refer to this over-confidence as an ‘ illusion of competence ’ .”

“For example, typical intra-individual correlations between peoples’ predictive Judg-ments of Learning (JOL; Koriat & Bjork, 2005) from text and their actual text comprehension performance (i.e., absolute monitoring accuracy) are below 0.30 (Dunlosky & Lipko, 2007; Thiede, Griffin, Wiley, & Redford,…”

“When metamemory judgments are based on invalid sources of information or ignore valid sources, dissociation between metamemory judgments and memory outcomes have been obtained (e.g., Eakin, 2005 ; Koriat & Bjork, 2005 , 2006 ).”

“Like forward pairs, participants typically assign backward pairs high JOLs at study (indicating that participants perceive backward pairs as related), but at test, participants often struggle to correctly retrieve the target (e.g., the illusion of competence; Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Studies by Koriat and Bjork (2005) revealed that JOLs are also sensitive to subtle differences in relatedness: In asymmetrically associated pairs, JOLs were (at least numerically) higher when the dominant association was from the cue to the target rather than from the target to the cue.”

“…choose to study (Carrier, 2003; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Karpicke et al., 2009; Miyatsu et al., 2018; Morehead et al., 2016; Rea et al., 2022; Van Etten et al., 1997), they develop an illusion of competency (Bjork, 1999; Kelley & Jacoby, 1996; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Nyland & Sawarynski, 2017).”

“For example, on seeing a target word for the second time, a learner might recall that her confidence on the previous trial was low, indicating a need for heightened attention to the current context (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Nevertheless, JOLs were consistently overconfident compared to actual recall, concordant with a variety of prior work (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Tauber & Rhodes, 2010).”

“…and as echoed by Bedwell and Salas (2008), Crook and Beier (2008), Saks and Haccoun (2008), and Sitzmann and Ely (2008), extant research indicates that many individuals are poor judges of their learning (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005) and enact poor learning strategies (Kraiger & Jerden, 2007).”

“…judgments can be related to task performance (e.g., Koriat, 2008), in some instances participants fail to act on performance-relevant information (Koriat & Bjork, 2005), or alternatively they base their monitoring judgments on irrelevant information that does not relate to task performance…”

“…is also implied by studies that explored interitem differences to shed light on the cues underlying metacognitive judgments across participants (e.g., Ackerman, 2023; Alter & Oppenheimer, 2009; Koriat, 2008; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat et al., 2006; Koriat & Lieblich, 1977; Metcalfe et al., 1993).”

“…1969), a number of important discrepancies between actual and predicted performance have been documented (e.g., Carroll, Nelson, & Kirwan, 1997; Castel, 2008; Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Mazzoni & Nelson, 1995; Rhodes & Castel, in press; Zechmeister & Shaughnessy, 1980).”

“In order to unearth potential difficult concepts, we created a list of 91 difficult terms adapting items from Landrum (1993). We defined difficult concepts as concepts that students frequently confuse or have difficulty in comprehending, understanding, and applying.”

“Could formulas give students a false sense of security, an illusion of competence (Koriat and Bjork, 2005), and cause them to stop working short of full comprehension?”

“1997; Koriat and Bjork 2006 ) when students learned pairs of words from a list.”

“By measuring changes in JOLs, including changes in material types, delays, and other encoding conditions, researchers can assess metamemory accuracy which can be informative for learning effectiveness (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Maxwell & Huff, 2021; Rhodes & Castel, 2008; see Rhodes, 2016).”

“Participants use a variety of implicit/experiential and explicit/analytical cues such as item relatedness or difficulty (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005), item familiarity (e.g., Reder & Ritter, 1992), and past-test performance (e.g., Serra & Ariel, 2014) when judging their memory for such items.”

“, 1991; Wells and Loftus, 2003), and the fact that recalling inner events is problematic (Hurlburt and Melancon, 1987; Koriat and Bjork, 2005).”

“Although this technique may seem effective in the short-term, studies (e.g., Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007; Koriat & Bjork, 2005) show that it increases familiarity with the material but not mastery of its content, thereby creating an “illusion of knowing” (Glenberg, Wilkinson, & Epstein, 1982,…”

“…prompt feedback; and dispel-ling the “ illusion of competence ” (whereby students have a false sense of mastery over learning outcomes that cannot be demonstrated during testing) by incorporating questioning into lecture-based teaching (Koriat & Bjork 2005; DeBourgh 2008; Bjork et al. 2013;).”

“…difference between low and high frequency relations with no to little bias, and a low sensitivity model of shallow slopes and medium bias on judgement estimation based on the findings of Maki (2007a, 2007b), Koriat and Bjork (2005), Korait et al. (2006), and Nelson et al. (2005) described earlier.”

“They tend to undervalue extrinsic cues (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Carroll, Nelson, & Kirwan, 1997).”

“In general population, many other studies exploring memory of associated pairs (Koriat & Bjork, 2005) have shown an overconfidence in memory abilities in healthy subjects.”

“For example, relatedness cues such as the associative direction between cue-target pairs have repeatedly been shown to induce an illusion of competence in which JOLs overpredict later recall for certain types of paired associates (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“The monitoring component is responsible for assessing the mind’s basic mental processes (Dunlosky & Nelson, 1992; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat & Ma’ayan, 2005; Serra & Dunlosky, 2005; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).”

“…research has shown that learners’ estimation of their own task performance (or knowledge) is often not in line with their actual performance (e.g., Bjork, 1994, 1999; Kostons et al., 2010, 2012; Rawson & Dunlosky, 2007), particularly for novices (e.g., Dunning et al., 2004; Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“…as a study strategy are likely to demonstrate lack of metacognitive insight regarding their learning (Karpicke et al., 2009); their assessments of their judgments of learning are often biased by the availability of material during study, which will be absent during an exam (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Koriat and Bjork (2005) argue that learners are susceptible to bias in predicting what they will know in the future based on their actual knowledge.”

“We also included students’ judgments of learning—metacognitive self-assessments of how well a person has learned particular information (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat & Shitzer-Reichert, 2002; Son & Metcalfe, 2005) to assess the efficacy of learning using assignments that integrate GenAI.”

“The mnemonic debiasing account (Koriat & Bjork, 2005, 2006) cannot account for the current data because it cannot explain why underconfidence on the second cycle occurs.”

“…strength (e.g., in a freeassociation task, the word “kittens” elicits “cats” but the word “cats” does not as readily elicit “kittens”) when they make judgments of learning (JOLs) for items differing in this characteristic, despite major influences of this cue on recall ( Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Koriat and Bjork (2005) demonstrated that IJOLs were influenced by whether the cue and target were associatively related but were also insensitive to the direction of association (forward vs. backward).”

“Early metacognitive studies were conducted to measure the accuracy of our monitoring judgments by looking for a positive correlation between our performance and our judgments of our knowledge [1–4].”

“Further, even when people have been told about the future circumstances (e.g., that test conditions will di ff er from encoding conditions), people struggle to take the perspective of themselves in the future, and thus make inaccurate predictions of their memories (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“While from a Jungian point of view this must indicate strong personal associations reflecting the activation of a complex, it would also be interesting to research this phenomenon in the context of illusions of competence in monitoring one’s won knowledge as done by Koriat and Bjork [46].”

“In contrast, JOLs have been both linked to item characteristics such as familiarity (Nelson&Narens, 1990) and perceived difficulty (Koriat & Bjork, 2005) or—in the case of delayed JOLs—to characteristics of retrieval such as fluency (Undorf & Erdfelder, 2011).”

“Many students also are unable to judge whether or not they are actually learning—a key aspect of metacognition—which can lead to overconfidence (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”

“Such familiarity may reduce attention allocation to the PV during reading (e.g., Elgort et al., 2020, 2023; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Yang, Potts, & Shanks, 2017).”