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On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables.
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The authors examine the practice of dichotomization of quantitative measures, wherein relationships among variables are examined after 1 or more variables have been converted to dichotomous variables by splitting the sample at some point on the scale(s) of measurement. A common form of dichotomization is the median split, where the independent variable is split at the median to form high and low groups, which are then compared with respect to their means on the dependent variable. The consequences of dichotomization for measurement and statistical analyses are illustrated and discussed. The use of dichotomization in practice is described, and justifications that are offered for such usage are examined. The authors present the case that dichotomization is rarely defensible and often will yield misleading results.
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“However, grouping loses information and may reduce statistical power [ 87 ] especially when dichotomization is used [ 82 , 85 , 88 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“In another survey, of the psychological literature, dichotomization was justified in only 22 of 110 articles (20%) [ 85 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“However, such dichotomisation will result in an unnecessary loss of statistical power and precision if continuous alternatives are available (MacCallum et al., 2002; Royston et al., 2006).”
From Rating norms should be calculated from cumulative link mixed effects models (2022) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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“Artificially dichotomizing continuous measures is rarely conceptually or statistically defensible, and frequently yields misleading results (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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Matthes, J., Marquart, F., Naderer, B., Arendt, F., Schmuck, D., & Adam, K. (2015) · Communication Methods and Measures · doi:10.1080/19312458.2015.1096334 · Cited by 74
Kooij, D. T. A. M., & Zacher, H. (2016) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12160 · Cited by 66
Geiser, C., Litson, K., Bishop, J., Keller, B., Burns, G., Servera, M., & Shiffman, S. (2015) · Psychological methods · doi:10.1037/met0000026 · Cited by 48
Breznitz, S. M., Clayton, P. A., Defazio, D., & Isett, K. R. (2017) · The Journal of Technology Transfer · doi:10.1007/s10961-017-9565-0 · Cited by 66
“Though the dichotomization reduced the level of accuracy of the information provided by the variable such an approach is often used to simplify estimation when a variable has a highly skewed distribution characterized by a large number of zeroes (MacCallum et al. 2002).”
BackgroundCoping Processes and Hemostatic Reactivity to Acute Stress in Dementia Caregivers
Aschbacher, K., Patterson, T. L., von Känel, R., Dimsdale, J. E., Mills, P. J., Adler, K. A., Ancoli‐Israel, S., & Grant, I. (2005) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000188458.85597.bc · Cited by 66
“However, readers are advised that dichotomization of the continuous coping variables is often inadvisable as it may result in a loss of power and information regarding individual differences (39).”
BackgroundEllis, R. J., Bruijn, B., Norton, A. C., Winner, E., & Schlaug, G. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.02.045 · Cited by 70
“All http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.02.045 a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o”
InfluentialEarly career teachers’ resilience and positive adaptive change capabilities
Bowles, T., & Arnup, J. L. (2016) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/s13384-015-0192-1 · Cited by 65
Age and gender differences in socially aversive (“dark”) personality traits
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Bette, S. J., Decker, J. A., Braun, F. M., et al. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12051231 · Cited by 65
The Relation Between Need for Cognition and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
Liu, Q., & Nesbit, J. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231160474 · Cited by 61
“Statisticians have raised a concern that artificially categorizing continuous variables using a median split can reduce the magnitude of the observed relationship (MacCallum et al., 2002; Peters & Van Voorhis, 1940).”
BackgroundTransitions between subclasses of bullying and victimization when entering middle school
Williford, A., Boulton, A. J., & Jenson, J. M. (2013) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21503 · Cited by 66
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Lin, H.-Y., Liu, Q., Li, X., Yang, J., Liu, S., Huang, Y., Scanlon, M. J., Nettleton, D. S., & Schnable, P. S. (2017) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/s13059-017-1328-6 · Cited by 65
Van Eck, K., Warren, P., & Flory, K. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0542-y · Cited by 63
Metadata
- Authors
- MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 19-40
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- OpenAlex
- W2108096958
- Semantic Scholar
- 67646d3def337c40bbfa2476f0f1ff785ae18242
- Cited by
- 3,538
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 282 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 134 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 211 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 179 · 2018: 180 · 2017: 223 · 2016: 208 · 2015: 208 · 2014: 184 · 2013: 187 · 2012: 138
- FWCI
- 55.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- dichotomization, quantitative variables, statistical analysis, change of variables, measurement error
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology
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