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On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables.
Open accessAbstract
The authors examine the practice of dichotomization of quantitative measures, wherein relationships among variables are examined after 1 or more variables have been converted to dichotomous variables by splitting the sample at some point on the scale(s) of measurement. A common form of dichotomization is the median split, where the independent variable is split at the median to form high and low groups, which are then compared with respect to their means on the dependent variable. The consequences of dichotomization for measurement and statistical analyses are illustrated and discussed. The use of dichotomization in practice is described, and justifications that are offered for such usage are examined. The authors present the case that dichotomization is rarely defensible and often will yield misleading results.
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“However, grouping loses information and may reduce statistical power [ 87 ] especially when dichotomization is used [ 82 , 85 , 88 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“In another survey, of the psychological literature, dichotomization was justified in only 22 of 110 articles (20%) [ 85 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“However, such dichotomisation will result in an unnecessary loss of statistical power and precision if continuous alternatives are available (MacCallum et al., 2002; Royston et al., 2006).”
From Rating norms should be calculated from cumulative link mixed effects models (2022) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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“Artificially dichotomizing continuous measures is rarely conceptually or statistically defensible, and frequently yields misleading results (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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Rouse, M. H., & Goodman, S. H. (2014) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.001 · Cited by 84
Academic and social achievement goals and early adolescents' adjustment: A latent class approach
Shim, S. S., & Finch, W. H. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.015 · Cited by 89
Morphological effects in auditory word recognition: Evidence from Danish
Balling, L. W., & Baayen, R. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960802201010 · Cited by 10
“We made use of multiple regression in order to avoid the problems known to arise when continuous predictors are dichotomised for the purposes of analysis of variance (Cohen, 1983 ; MacCallum, Zhang, Preacher, & Rucker, 2002 ).”
MethodUncovering the Structure of and Gender and Developmental Differences in Cyber Bullying
Griezel, L., Finger, L. R., Bodkin‐Andrews, G., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2012) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2011.629692 · Cited by 96
The interpersonally sensitive disposition and health: An integrative review.
Marin, T. J., & Miller, G. E. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0030800 · Cited by 79
The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire and BMI in adolescents: results from the Québec Family Study
Gallant, A. R., Tremblay, A., Përusse, L., Bouchard, C., Després, J., & Drapeau, V. (2010) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114510001662 · Cited by 78
“As the median split method has been criticised((19)), full-factorial multiple regression analysis using the continuous variables restraint and disinhibition was also used to test for variable interaction.”
Flow theory – goal orientation theory: positive experience is related to athlete’s goal orientation
Stavrou, N. A. M., Psychountaki, M., Georgiadis, E. M., Karteroliotis, K. E., & Zervas, Y. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01499 · Cited by 77
“Although several researchers have criticized and not encouraged the dichotomization of quantitative variables (MacCallum et al., 2002) due to loss of power or increase of Type I error, however, dichotomization might be used in some cases without methodological concerns (DeCoster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundA Methodological Review and Critique of the “Intergenerational Transmission of Violence” Literature
Haselschwerdt, M. L., Savasuk‐Luxton, R., & Hlavaty, K. (2017) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838017692385 · Cited by 92
“There are few documented, legitimate reasons to dichotomize variables from a methodological perspective, including the rare case in which a variable (e.g., EIPV) is highly skewed (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
BackgroundHonicke, T., Broadbent, J., & Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M. (2019) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2019.1685941 · Cited by 99
Language Mindsets, Meaning-Making, and Motivation
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28380-3_26 · Cited by 91
Bucciarelli, P., Passamonti, S. M., Biguzzi, E., et al. (2012) · Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis · doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04858.x · Cited by 77
Leflot, G., van Lier, P. A. C., Onghena, P., & Colpin, H. (2013) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2012.12.006 · Cited by 76
Kimmerle, J., Creß, U., & Hesse, F. W. (2007) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2007.06.002 · Cited by 78
Turner, S. A., Łuszczyńska, A., Warner, L. M., & Schwarzer, R. (2009) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2009.09.020 · Cited by 84
“The values of the moderator were coded as 1 (control) and +1 (positive mood enhancement), as suggested by Muller et al. (2005). Moderated mediation is observed if at least one of following conditions is met: (1) the relationship between the independent variable and mediator is moderated, with the mediator predicting t…”
BackgroundFour successful tests of the Cognitive Differentiation–Integration Effort hypothesis
Menie, M. A. W. O., Figueredo, A. J., Brown, S. D., & Ross, K. C. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.02.002 · Cited by 73
Canal, P., Bischetti, L., Paola, S. D., Bertini, C., Ricci, I., & Bambini, V. (2019) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2019.02.001 · Cited by 74
Raspopow, K., Abizaid, A. B., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.11.018 · Cited by 77
Morin, A. J. S., Tran, A., & Caci, H. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054713488825 · Cited by 76
Karlssön, M., Edström-Plüss, C., Held, C., Henriksson, P., Billing, E., & Wallén, N. H. (2007) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-007-9096-5 · Cited by 76
“The reason was the loss of information on individual differences, and measurement reliability if a continuous variable is dichotomized ( MacCallum et al. 2002; Royston et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAnalysis and Interpretation of Findings Using Multiple Regression Techniques
Hoyt, W. T., Leierer, S. J., & Millington, M. J. (2006) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/00343552060490040401 · Cited by 88
“For example, Nielsen (2003) included gender and marital status among her control variables.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 19-40
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- OpenAlex
- W2108096958
- Semantic Scholar
- 67646d3def337c40bbfa2476f0f1ff785ae18242
- Cited by
- 3,538
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 282 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 134 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 211 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 179 · 2018: 180 · 2017: 223 · 2016: 208 · 2015: 208 · 2014: 184 · 2013: 187 · 2012: 138
- FWCI
- 55.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- dichotomization, quantitative variables, statistical analysis, change of variables, measurement error
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology
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