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On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables.
Open accessAbstract
The authors examine the practice of dichotomization of quantitative measures, wherein relationships among variables are examined after 1 or more variables have been converted to dichotomous variables by splitting the sample at some point on the scale(s) of measurement. A common form of dichotomization is the median split, where the independent variable is split at the median to form high and low groups, which are then compared with respect to their means on the dependent variable. The consequences of dichotomization for measurement and statistical analyses are illustrated and discussed. The use of dichotomization in practice is described, and justifications that are offered for such usage are examined. The authors present the case that dichotomization is rarely defensible and often will yield misleading results.
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“However, grouping loses information and may reduce statistical power [ 87 ] especially when dichotomization is used [ 82 , 85 , 88 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“In another survey, of the psychological literature, dichotomization was justified in only 22 of 110 articles (20%) [ 85 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“However, such dichotomisation will result in an unnecessary loss of statistical power and precision if continuous alternatives are available (MacCallum et al., 2002; Royston et al., 2006).”
From Rating norms should be calculated from cumulative link mixed effects models (2022) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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“Artificially dichotomizing continuous measures is rarely conceptually or statistically defensible, and frequently yields misleading results (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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“Consequently, each participant is classified into one of the high, medium, or low groups on each of the Big Five personality dimensions according to Maccallum et al. (2002) and Shen et al. (2013).”
BackgroundCheng, L. S. P., Burgess, D., Vernooij, N., Solís-Barroso, C., McDermott, A., & Namboodiripad, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715843 · Cited by 228
Vandenbroucke, J. P., von Elm, E. B., Altman, D. G., Gøtzsche, P. C., Mulrow, C. D., Pocock, S., Poole, C., Schlesselman, J. J., & Egger, M. (2009) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2008.12.001 · Cited by 215
Media Exposure to Collective Trauma, Mental Health, and Functioning: Does It Matter What You See?
Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., Lubens, P., & Silver, R. C. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619858300 · Cited by 201
Nadler, M., Bainbridge, D., Tomasone, J., Cheifetz, O., Juergens, R. A., & Sussman, J. (2017) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-017-3640-9 · Cited by 190
“Seven-point scales for the knowledge items were dichotomized to Bpoor^ (1–4) and Bgood^ (5–7) based on the skewed distribution of responses and relevant cut-points [20, 23].”
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A taxometric study of the Adult Attachment Interview.
Roisman, G. I., Fraley, R. C., & Belsky, J. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.675 · Cited by 189
“As discussed earlier, it is now well-known that imposing a categorical structure on dimensional data can attenuate predictive validity (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialDo health behaviors mediate the association between social capital and health?
Poortinga, W. (2006) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.06.004 · Cited by 189
Kleiman, E. M., & Liu, R. T. (2014) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.128900 · Cited by 188
Matching method with theory in person-oriented developmental psychopathology research
Sterba, S. K., & Bauer, D. J. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000015 · Cited by 187
Ansary, A., & Hashim, N. M. H. N. (2017) · Review of Managerial Science · doi:10.1007/s11846-017-0235-2 · Cited by 187
The Acute Effect of High-Intensity Exercise on Executive Function: A Meta-Analysis
Moreau, D., & Chou, E. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619850568 · Cited by 209
Psychological factors associated with financial hardship and mental health: A systematic review
Frankham, C., Richardson, T. H., & Maguire, N. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101832 · Cited by 220
Grande, G., Romppel, M., & Barth, J. (2012) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-011-9339-0 · Cited by 230
“The general limitations of dichotomizing continuous variables are well known: It may reduce the sensitivity of statistical tests and produce spurious associations [56–58].”
BackgroundConsumer brand relationships: an investigation of two alternative models
Breivik, E., & Thorbjørnsen, H. (2008) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-008-0115-z · Cited by 184
“However, such a procedure represents a substantial information loss as well as a potential for misinterpretation in situations involving correlated dimensions (MacCallum et al. 2002).”
BackgroundDynamic association between negative affect and alcohol lapses following alcohol treatment.
Witkiewitz, K., & Villarroel, N. A. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015647 · Cited by 179
Anxiety and Intergroup Bias: Terror Management or Coalitional Psychology?
Navarrete, C. D., Kurzban, R., Fessler, D. M. T., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2004) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430204046144 · Cited by 179
“Personality variables were included as interaction terms to (1) compare the slopes of the treatment conditions to the control group; and, (2) to facilitate the assessment of simple effects of each experimental condition estimated at both high and low levels of authoritarianism ( MacCallum, Zhang, Preacher, & Rucker, 2…”
Stoeber, J., & Gaudreau, P. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.039 · Cited by 203
Cognitive impairment in people living with HIV: consensus recommendations for a new approach
Nightingale, S., Ances, B. M., Cinque, P. M., Dravid, A. N., Dreyer, A. J., Gisslén, M., Joska, J. A., Kwasa, J. K., Meyer, A., Mpongo, N., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-023-00813-2 · Cited by 185
Metadata
- Authors
- MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 19-40
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- OpenAlex
- W2108096958
- Semantic Scholar
- 67646d3def337c40bbfa2476f0f1ff785ae18242
- Cited by
- 3,538
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 282 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 134 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 211 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 179 · 2018: 180 · 2017: 223 · 2016: 208 · 2015: 208 · 2014: 184 · 2013: 187 · 2012: 138
- FWCI
- 55.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- dichotomization, quantitative variables, statistical analysis, change of variables, measurement error
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology
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