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On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables.
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The authors examine the practice of dichotomization of quantitative measures, wherein relationships among variables are examined after 1 or more variables have been converted to dichotomous variables by splitting the sample at some point on the scale(s) of measurement. A common form of dichotomization is the median split, where the independent variable is split at the median to form high and low groups, which are then compared with respect to their means on the dependent variable. The consequences of dichotomization for measurement and statistical analyses are illustrated and discussed. The use of dichotomization in practice is described, and justifications that are offered for such usage are examined. The authors present the case that dichotomization is rarely defensible and often will yield misleading results.
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“However, grouping loses information and may reduce statistical power [ 87 ] especially when dichotomization is used [ 82 , 85 , 88 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“In another survey, of the psychological literature, dichotomization was justified in only 22 of 110 articles (20%) [ 85 ].”
From Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration (2007) · cites this paper as [85]
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“However, such dichotomisation will result in an unnecessary loss of statistical power and precision if continuous alternatives are available (MacCallum et al., 2002; Royston et al., 2006).”
From Rating norms should be calculated from cumulative link mixed effects models (2022) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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“Artificially dichotomizing continuous measures is rarely conceptually or statistically defensible, and frequently yields misleading results (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as MacCallum et al., 2002
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Cupertino, A.-P., Berg, C. J., Gajewski, B. J., Hui, S. A., Richter, K. P., Catley, D., & Ellerbeck, E. F. (2011) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105311422457 · Cited by 47
“However, dichotomization reduces power to detect the effects of mediating variables (McCallum et al., 2002).”
BackgroundHuffmeijer, R., Alink, L. R. A., Tops, M., Grewen, K., Light, K. C., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.11.008 · Cited by 43
“This allows for the use of continuous scores in statistical analyses, which has considerable advantage over employing a group division (for an explanation, see MacCallum et al., 2002).”
Categorisation of built environment characteristics: the trouble with tertiles
Lamb, K. E., & White, S. R. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0181-9 · Cited by 42
“[30] mention that in very rare circumstances dichotomisation may be justifiable.”
BackgroundDepression and the Risk of Cancer: A 15-year Follow-up Study of the GAZEL Cohort
Lemogne, C., Consoli, S. M., Melchior, M., Nabi, H., Cœuret-Pellicer, M., Limosin, F., Goldberg, M., & Zins, M. (2013) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwt217 · Cited by 42
Eisenberg, I. W., Wallace, G. L., Kenworthy, L. E., Gotts, S. J., & Martin, A. D. (2015) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0047-7 · Cited by 41
“, [45]), and we therefore defined a more continuous analysis of how structural”
BackgroundInstitutional Pressures and Isomorphism
Carter, J. G. (2016) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611116639536 · Cited by 43
Thielmann, I., Zimmermann, J., Leising, D., & Hilbig, B. E. (2017) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2112 · Cited by 42
Stress Appraisals and Training Performance on a Complex Laboratory Task
Gildea, K. M., Schneider, T. R., & Shebilske, W. L. (2007) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872007x215818 · Cited by 42
der Elst, W. V., van Boxtel, M. P. J., van Breukelen, G., & Jolles, J. (2007) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707000360 · Cited by 42
“It is in general not advisable to dichotomize a variable because this results in a loss of measurement information and statistical power (MacCallum et al. 2002).”
BackgroundRelation of Vocational Identity Statuses to Interest Structure Among Swiss Adolescents
Hirschi, A. (2010) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1177/0894845310378665 · Cited by 42
Influence of ESGC Indicators on Financial Performance of Listed Travel and Leisure Companies
Rodrı́guez-Fernández, M., Sánchez-Teba, E. M., López-Toro, A. A., & Borrego-Domínguez, S. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11195529 · Cited by 41
Traumatic Brain Injury: What Is a Favorable Outcome?
Zuckerman, D., Giacino, J. T., & Bodien, Y. G. (2021) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2021.0356 · Cited by 41
Towards a moderated mediation model of innovative work behaviour enhancement
Stoffers, J., van der Heijden, B., & Notelaers, G. (2014) · Journal of Organizational Change Management · doi:10.1108/jocm-05-2014-0105 · Cited by 54
“However, the criticism has not stopped researchers from dichotomizing their continuous variables prior to analysis (MacCallum et al., 2002).”
BackgroundGarfin, D. R., Silver, R. C., Ugalde, F. J., Linn, H., & Manuel Inostroza, P. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037374 · Cited by 46
A new strategy for meta‐analysis of continuous covariates in observational studies
Sauerbrei, W., & Royston, P. J. (2011) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4333 · Cited by 41
“Although the use of step functions produces unrealistic functions, discards information and can be further criticized [30, 31], it is still popular for the analysis of single studies and is also used in meta-analysis [6, 32].”
Hegeman, J. M., Wardenaar, K. J., Comijs, H. C., de Waal, M. W. M., Kok, R., & van der Mast, R. C. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.07.008 · Cited by 41
Azeredo, C. M., Levy, R. B., Peres, M. F. T., Menezes, P. R., & Araya, R. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011571 · Cited by 41
Wang, S. B., Pisetsky, E. M., Skutch, J. M., Fruzzetti, A. E., & Haynos, A. F. (2018) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.02.005 · Cited by 41
“In addition, the extreme skewness of these variables in nonclinical samples made dichotomization statistically advisable [35].”
BackgroundDifferential relationships of guilt and shame on posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans.
Bannister, J. A., Colvonen, P. J., Angkaw, A. C., & Norman, S. B. (2018) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000392 · Cited by 40
Wong, L. P., Alias, H., Husin, S. A., Ali, Z. B., Sim, B. L. H., & Ponnampalavanar, S. S. L. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258698 · Cited by 44
“Dichotomization of total knowledge and practices scores were done using median split to form high and low score groups [15].”
MethodYip, T., Xie, M., Cham, H., & El‐Sheikh, M. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13747 · Cited by 43
Metadata
- Authors
- MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 19-40
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- OpenAlex
- W2108096958
- Semantic Scholar
- 67646d3def337c40bbfa2476f0f1ff785ae18242
- Cited by
- 3,538
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 282 · 2025: 170 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 134 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 211 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 179 · 2018: 180 · 2017: 223 · 2016: 208 · 2015: 208 · 2014: 184 · 2013: 187 · 2012: 138
- FWCI
- 55.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- dichotomization, quantitative variables, statistical analysis, change of variables, measurement error
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology
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