Internalized homophobia and relationship quality among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals.

“…of freedom for the model (values less than three; Carmines & McIver, 1981); the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA; values below .06; Hu & Bentler, 1999); standardized root-meansquare residual (SRMR; values below .08; Hu & Bentler, 1999); and the comparative fit index (CFI; values…”

“We followed the two-step process recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), which requires first demonstrating adequate fit of the measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis followed by testing the fit of the proposed structural models.”

“The three-item Positive Relations With Others scale was used, which is one of Ryff’s (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995) six psychological well-being scales.”

“It is important to recognize that our conceptualization of internalized homophobia locates it as a social stressor that is related to negative social stigma surrounding LGB lives prevalent in society today (Meyer, 2003a).”

“According to Shrout and Bolger (2002), if the bias-corrected 95% CIs around the estimates for the indirect effects do not contain 0, then it is possible to conclude that the indirect effects are statistically significant at the level of p .05.”

“…with what other researchers have found for this subscale and stems from the authors' desire to create a brief measure and maintain the multidimensionality of the overall psychological well-being construct at the expense of internal consistency (Chrouser Ahrens, & Ryff, 2006; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).”

“…homophobia” and related constructs have reflected differing assumptions about exactly which phenomena should be considered direct manifestations of sexual self-stigma and which should be regarded as its antecedents, correlates, or consequences (e.g., Frost & Meyer, 2009; Shidlo, 1994).”

“The current study included a modified version (presented in Frost & Meyer, 2009) that assessed how often participants have ‘‘wished you weren’t gay,’’ ‘‘felt alienated from yourself because of being gay,’’ and ‘‘felt that being gay is a personal shortcoming.’’”

“The measure has good face validity, construct validity, and internal consistency (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“For example, intergenerational and life-course differences should be expected and may affect the measure's properties (Frost & Meyer, 2009 ; Kertzner et al, 2009 ; Van Dyke & Cress, 2006 ).”

“Resilience, or the ability to mitigate the adverse impact of stress and thrive in the face of adversity, is a critical element of minority stress theory (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Meyer, 2015).”

“Little is known about the effects of minority stress on social well-being despite the inherently social nature of stigmatization and the tasks of psychosocial development undertaken by LGB persons to overcome this stigmatization, such as establishing new social networks, cultivating a positive in-group minority identi…”

“The availability and use of group-level resources are important to counter societal stressors related to prejudice, for example, by reducing internalized homophobia and improving well-being (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Kertzner, Meyer, Frost, & Stirratt, in press).”

“…outcomes, including anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, sexual risk-taking, problems in intimacy, and lower well-being and overall self-esteem (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 2009; Herek & Glunt, 1995; Meyer, 1995; Meyer & Dean, 1998; Rowen & Malcolm, 2002; Williamson, 2000).”

“These proximal sources of stigma-related stress still stem from the prevailing culture of social stigma, and should not be reduced to personality traits or internally generated processes (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Russell & Bohan, 2006).”

“In addition, some studies failed to find a correlation between outness and psychological distress (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Lewis, Derlega, Griffin, & Krowinski, 2003; Oetjen & Rothblum, 2000) or relationship satisfaction (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“…within-group studies have consistently demonstrated negative effects of minority stress on the mental health of sexual minority persons (e.g., Frost & Meyer, 2009; Frost, Parsons, & Nanín, 2007; Hatzenbuehler, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Erickson, 2008; Igartua, Gill, & Montoro, 2003; Meyer, 1995;…”

“Research demonstrates associations between this scale and internalized homonegativity and gay community connectedness (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“These findings suggest that both transgender women and their male partners may internalize negative messages about transgender people, which may diminish their own psychological wellbeing (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Minority stress variables have also been linked with decreased relationship quality, which in turn increases the risk for physical DV in relationship (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“For example, the minority stress model links sexual inequality (and related experiences of discrimination, stigma, and rejection) with decreased well-being, frequently observed through increased rates of depression (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Meyer, 2003).”

“The CES-D has established validity, and prior studies of lesbians and gay men show that the CES-D has good internal consistency in these populations (David & Knight, 2008; Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“By extension, internalizing, or proximal, minority stressors, such as internalized homophobia—a minority stressor that is a significant predictor of adverse health and well-being [37]— PLOS ONE Minority stress in 3 cohorts of sexual minority adults”

“…internalized homonegativity, and internalized sexual stigma, is related positively to psychological distress and negatively to psychological well-being (e.g., Frost & Meyer, 2009; Lewis, Derlega, Griffin, & Krowinski, 2003; Mays & Cochran, 2001; Meyer, 1995; Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010).”

“…internalize societal prejudice against sexual and gender minorities (Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 2015), which has been associated with social constraints (Frost & Meyer, 2009), mental health problems (Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010), and physical health symptoms (Lewis, Derlega, Clarke, & Kuang, 2006).”

“Frost and Meyer (2009, this issue) argued for the importance of conceptual clarity when investigating internalized heterosexism and, in particular, for defining the construct as application of anti-LGB attitudes to the self.”

“Sexual minorities in same-sex relationships experience stigmatization specific to their relationships on an interpersonal level (Diamond, 2006; Frost & Meyer, 2009; Green & Mitchell, 2002; Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007).”

“, Green, 2000). Weston (1991) has even gone as far as to contend that LGBs create a “family of choice” consisting of close and supportive friends.”

“For example, past studies have used measures of disclosure (outness) as a possible explanatory factor for both well-being and distress (e.g., Feldman & Wright, 2013; Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Extensive evidence demonstrates that sexual minorities are disproportionately affected by stigma and discrimination (e.g. Frisell, Lichenstein, Rahman, & Langstrom, 2010; Frost & Meyer, 2009; Hatzenbuehler, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Erickson, 2008; Wohl et al., 2011).”

“…demonstrate deleterious associations between social stigma and romantic relationship functioning for sexual minorities (e.g., Doyle & Molix, 2014a; Frost & Meyer, 2009), results have not been entirely consistent (e.g., Balsam & Szymanski, 2005; Kamen et al., 2011; Otis, Rostosky, Riggle, &…”

“This also seems consistent with minority stress theory (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“They often experience discrimination related to these aspects of their identities, 62–64 which fuels violence perpetration against them, 65 fosters feelings of internalized homonegativity 66–68 and hinders disclosure of victimization.”

“IHP has been shown to be associated with a set of health problems among gay and bisexual men including depression and anxiety [31], eating disorders [32], relationship problems [33], sexual compulsivity [34], substance use [35], high risk sexual behaviors [36] and syndemic production (i.”

“For example, Frost and Meyer (2009) found that higher J Marriage Fam.”

“In contrast to these findings, Frost and Meyer (2009) found no unique links between outness and depressive symptoms and relationship problems among 396 LGBTQ persons. Clearly, more research examining the relationship between outness and mental health is needed. Although Meyer’s (2003) Minority Stress Theory posits dir…”

“While there is still much stigma and discrimination that both young people and adults expressing same-sex attraction experience (e.g., Frost and Bastone 2008; Frost and Meyer 2009; Meyer 2003), a combination of state and”

“Internalized homophobia has been linked to poor relationship quality among gay men (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“…discrimination experiences (Durso & Gates, 2012, Abramovich 2013, Tyler et al., 2012, Shelton et al., 2018) Stigma and discrimination‐related experiences can have a serious effect on an individual's sense of safety and well‐being and can lead to minority stress (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Meyer, 2015).”

“Among LGB persons, internalized homophobia/homonegativity has been shown to be associated with greater relationship problems, both generally and among couples (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Internalized Homophobia was a count of 4 items adapted from Frost and Meyer (2009) assessing any occurrence in the past year of the following sentiments: felt it best to avoid personal or social involvement with gay people, tried to stop being attracted to men, felt that my sexual orientation was a…”

“…selfesteem, depression, connection with and feelings toward the lesbian, gay, and bisexual community, degree of outness, and perceived stigma related to being lesbian, gay, or bisexual (Frost and Meyer 2009; Herek et al. 1998, 2000; Szymanski and Kashubeck-West 2008; Szymanski and Owens 2008).”

“These include social support, being in a relationship, community connectedness, and higher levels of outness among others (Frost and Meyer 2009; Meyer 2003, 2010).”

“If so, how can practitioners address this issue with gay men, especially since it is well established that negative feelings about the self adversely affect psychological well-being (e.g., Frost & Meyer, 2009; Szymanski & Gupta, 2009)?”

“fears of coming out) are also less likely to be connected to a gay community (Frost and Meyer 2009) and subsequently the associated bar cultures which have been associated with com-”

“Research indicates that a strong connection or sense of connectedness to the GLBTQ community can protect against the negative mental and physical effects of minority stress experiences (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Also, in a racially diverse sample of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual men and women, Frost and Meyer (2009) found that individuals with higher levels of internalized heterosexism had higher levels of relationship problems, mediated by depression symptoms.”

“Some LGB people may decide not to reveal their sexual orientation in certain situations, even if they completely accept their LGB identity, indicating that outness may be influenced by situational and environmental circumstances rather than internal conflict (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“…which stress is associated with individual-level outcomes (e.g., mental health; LeBlanc et al., 2015; Meyer, 1995), rather than relational outcomes (e.g., relationship quality; some exceptions include Frost & Meyer, 2009; Otis, Rostosky, Riggle, & Hamrin, 2006; Totenhagen, Butler, & Ridley, 2012).”

“***p < .001, **p < .01 1 3 relationships are inferior or dysfunctional may reduce trust, commitment, and intimacy; and may increase relationship conflict and dissatisfaction (Cao et al., 2017; Downs, 2012; Doyle & Molix, 2015; Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“In the literature on sexual identity, especially, but also in the literature on transgender people, internalised stigma has been seen as a major insidious stressor that adversely affects the health of LGBT people (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010; Testa et al., 2015).”

“Closer ties to the LGB community could confer protective properties against minority stress given that researchers have indicated that affiliation with the LGB community is negatively associated with internalized homonegativity (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Internalized homophobia has been directly related to depression among GLB adults (e.g., Frost & Meyer, 2009; Gold, Marx, & Lexington, 2007; Goldberg & Smith, 2011; Igartua et al., 2003; Szymanski et al., 2001; see Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010, for a review).”

“This study suggests that what is most necessary is social policy reform to eliminate social and structural inequalities surrounding the pursuit of intimacy to reduce disparities in intimacyrelated stressors of lesbians and gay men (Frost, 2011; Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“Research has shown that internalized homonegativity has an adverse effect on a range of psychosocial outcomes in gay men (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010; Rosser, Bockting, Ross, Miner & Coleman, 2008; Williamson, 2000).”

“Minority stressors are theorized to lead to relationship strain and disrupt relationship satisfaction(Frost & Meyer, 2009; Otis, Rostosky, Riggle, & Hamrin, 2006).”

“Theassociation between IHand psychologicaldistress among GBM is well documented (Burns, Kamen, Lehman, & Beach, 2012; Frost & Meyer, 2009; Gold, Marx, & Lexington, 2007; Morandini, Blaszczynski, Ross, Costa, & Dar-Nimrod, 2015; Wagner, Brondolo, & Rabkin, 1997).”

“Other studies have demonstrated a relationship between increased homonegativity and strained social relationships (Frost & Meyer, 2009), indicating a decrease in satisfaction of support, but not necessarily availability of support.”

“Minority stress is also associated with psychological and relational difficulties (e.g., depression, substance use, low relationship quality; Frost & Meyer, 2009; Hatzenbuehler, 2009; McKenry, Serovic, Mason, & Mosak, 1474 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 33(9) 2006), which may increase risk for…”

“First, most studies are cross-sectional and quantitative (e.g., Day & Schoenrade, 2000; Frost & Meyer, 2009; Madera et al., 2012; Ng et al., 2012).”

“Experiencing discrimination from other LGBQ individuals comprises a potential source of isolation that can disrupt identity development and a healthy selfconcept for LGBQ individuals (Frost & Meyer, 2009; I. H. Meyer, 1995, 2003).”

“…risk behaviors, Hatzenbuehler et al., 2008; rejection sensitivity,Pachankis, Goldfried, & Ramrattan, 2008; problems with interpersonal relationships,Frost & Meyer, 2009; and the propensity to seek conversion 1The use of the term “Christian” is admittedly diverse given the broad array of…”

“Internalized stigma (also called internalized homophobia) refers to the self-application of negative social attitudes prevalent in society about sexual minorities (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Herek, 2009).”

“These internalized feelings and related stressors can sometimes cause students to act negatively toward other LGBTQ identifying students, resulting in internalized homophobia (Frost & Meyer, 2009).”

“…and the devaluation of LGBT people and one’s self, and has been found to contribute to lower relationship quality, greater number of relationship problems, and ability to maintain long-term relationships (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Gaines et al., 2005; Meyer & Dean, 1998; Ross & Simon Rosser, 1996).”

“…minority stressors, including internalized homonegativity and sensitivity to status-based rejection, which are in turn associated with poor mental health and health-risk behaviors (Bockting et al., 2013; Feinstein et al., 2012; Frost et al., 2015; Frost and Meyer, 2009; Pachankis et al., 2015b).”

“…(Allen & Oleson, 1999; Rowen & Malcolm, 2003; Szymanski & Gupta, 2009), internalized shame (Allen & Oleson, 1999), greater relationship problems (Frost & Meyer, 2009), poorer relationship satisfaction (Rowen & Malcolm, 2003), higher levels of psychological distress (Szymanski & Gupta, 2009),…”

“These covariates were current relationship status, minority status, and age, as each of these variables has been shown in previous research to affect identity and well-being in LGB individuals (Frost & Meyer, 2009; Kertzner, Meyer, Frost, & Stirratt, 2009).”

“Sexual minority stressors are also associated with relationship dissatisfaction and higher rates of intimate partner violence (IPV; Balsam & Szymanski, 2005; Frost & Meyer, 2009 ; Otis, Riggle, & Rostosky, 2006 ; Otis, Rostosky, Riggle, & Hamrin, 2006 ; Riggle, Rostosky, & Horne, 2010 ).”