Cited by 779Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

Smith, Timothy B., Silva, Lynda·2011·Journal of Counseling Psychology

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Abstract

This article summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies analyzed with random effects models yielded an omnibus effect size of r = .17, suggesting a modest relationship between the 2 constructs. The relationship was somewhat stronger among adolescents and young adults than among adults over age 40. No differences were observed across participant race, gender, or socioeconomic status, which findings support the general relevance of ethnic identity across people of color. Studies correlating ethnic identity with self-esteem and positive well-being yielded average effect sizes twice as large as those from studies correlating ethnic identity with personal distress or mental health symptoms. Ethnic identity was thus more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts.

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Background
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Background
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BackgroundInfluential
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“While their Latinx ethnicity puts teens at risk of psychological distress, features of Latinx culture and community can be protective (Dillon et al., 2019; Foxen, 2016; Jocson et al., 2020; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
A latent profile analysis of psychological sense of community and ethnic identity among racial–ethnic minority young adults from the southwestern United States
Lardier, D. T., Opara, I., & Roach, E. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22686 · Cited by 12
The Mental and Physical Health Effects of Torture: The Role of Identity Salience as a Pathway to Posttraumatic Growth and Healing: The Case of Syrian Refugees and IDPs
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Ibraheem, B. A., & Aljakoub, J. (2021) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2021.1211110 · Cited by 7
“Commitment to different identities in different age groups was associated with better mental health in various previous studies (e.g., for meta-analysis, see Smith & Silva, 2011).”
The Role of Race in Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Training for Preservice School Social Workers and Teachers
Humphries, M. L., & McKay-Jackson, C. (2021) · Children & Schools · doi:10.1093/cs/cdab031 · Cited by 10
Ethnic identity, perceived classmate support and general self-efficacy in ethnic minority adolescents in rural Chinese school settings
Lai, A. H. Y., CHUI, C. H.-K., Wong, J. K. Y., Leung, C. T. C., & Chen, Z. (2022) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106486 · Cited by 8
White Out: The Invisibility of White North American Culture and Resilience Processes
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U.S. Latinas/os’ Ethnic Identity
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“However, reviews of existing studies have noted that the findings of empirical research do not always support the expected positive relation between ethnic identity and psychological health (e.g., Schwartz, Unger, Zamboanga, & Szapocznik, 2010; Smith & Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor, 2011).”
Background
Muslim and Jewish Immigrants’ Adjustment: The Role of Religious-American Harmony, Religious-American Identity Centrality, and Discrimination
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“Although there is extensive research on the association between single social identities and adjustment (e.g., Postmes et al., 2019; Smith & Silva, 2011), psychologists are only beginning to examine the association 1California State University, Fullerton, USA Corresponding Author: Angela-MinhTu D.…”
Background
Does “who I am” influence “how I feel”? Cultural identity and mental health among Hong Kong Chinese adolescents
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Cultural factors and oral health-related quality of life among dentate adults: Hispanic community health study/study of Latinos
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“Cultural factors such as acculturation and ethnic identity can influence well-being and quality of life, and are important predictors of self-reported (perceived) health (Lara et al. 2005; Ai et al. 2014; Smith and Silva 2011; Kiang et al. 2006; Utsey et al. 2002).”
Background
Fairness in Paper and Video Resume Screening
Hiemstra, A. M. F. (2009) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 8
The relationship of skin tone to physical and mental health outcomes in South Asian Americans
Bhagwat, R. (2012) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t3tx3d56 · Cited by 7
“Theories of ethnic and racial identity typically share 13 the assumption that strong and positive ethnic identity is a protective factor for ethnic minority group members (e.g., Cross & Cross, 2008; Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResult
Not All Children Grow Up the Same
Trawick‐Smith, J. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119148104.ch2 · Cited by 10
Ethnic Identity, Psychology of
Liebkind, K., Mähönen, T. A., Varjonen, S., & Jasinskaja‐Lahti, I. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.24016-6 · Cited by 8
At the intersection of race and immigration: a comprehensive review of depression and related symptoms within the US Black population
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Cultural Correlates of Dating Violence in a Combined Gender Group of Latino College Students
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“This is in line with research showing the benefits of ethnic identity such as self-esteem and well-being (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Result
Targeting ethnic-racial identity development and academic engagement in tandem through curriculum
Wantchekon, K. A., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101292 · Cited by 9
Values and National Identification in Minority and Majority Youth: Longitudinal Multi-Study Findings
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“Being part of a larger group helps individuals feel connected and gives them a sense of belonging and support (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
“I want to lift my people up”: Exploring the psychological correlates of racial themes within the life stories of midlife Black Americans
Mayukha, A., Guzman, A., Jitklongsub, S., & McAdams, D. P. (2024) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12932 · Cited by 7
“For example, Smith and Silva (2011) found that associations between ethnic identity and well-being were stronger for younger adults than adults over the age of 40.”
Influential
The Importance of Religiosity and Cultural Maintenance for Self-Esteem: The Case of Second-Generation Turkish–Dutch Adolescents
Bender, M., & Yeresyan, I. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9129-3_7 · Cited by 7
School anxiety and depression among immigrant youth in America: Differences by region of birth and language proficiency
Kremer, K. P., & House, N. G. (2019) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12396 · Cited by 7
African Americans, Caribbean Blacks and Depression: Which Biopsychosocial Factors Should Social Workers Focus On? Results from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL)
Robinson, M. A., Kim, I., Mowbray, O. P., & Disney, L. (2021) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-021-00833-6 · Cited by 8
“There is a large body of evidence that self-esteem is interconnected with depression, as well as with chronic disease (Juth et al., 2008), ethnic identity (Smith & Silva, 2011), and discrimination (Thoits, 2010).”
Background
Framing body size among African American women and girls
Williams, E. P., Wyatt, S. B., & Winters, K. P. (2013) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493512461572 · Cited by 7
“It is thought that the development of ethnic identity may be a mediating factor for self-esteem as the person defines what it means to be a member of an ethnic group, rather than allowing society to define if for them (Smith and Silva, 2011; Twenge and Crocker, 2002).”
Background
Culture and Educational Stress and Internalizing Symptoms Among Latino Adolescents: The Role of Ethnic Identity
Torres, S. A., & Santiago, C. D. (2017) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2017.1301819 · Cited by 7
“Overall, ethnic identity appears to promote the well-being of people of color, including supporting positive self-esteem (Smith & Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007).”
Background
Multidimensional Acculturation and Identity of Russian-Speaking Youth in Canada: The Role of Parents
Glozman, J., & Chuang, S. S. (2018) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558418767624 · Cited by 7
Ethnic Identity Buffers the Effect of Discrimination on Family, Life, and Health Satisfaction for Pacific Peoples in New Zealand
Manuela, S. (2021) · Pacific health dialog · doi:10.26635/phd.2021.113 · Cited by 7
Youth Identity, Peace and Conflict: Insights from Conflict and Diverse Settings
McKeown, S., Çavdar, D., & Taylor, L. K. (2019) · Peace psychology book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22176-8_12 · Cited by 9
Sociocultural Adaptation Strategies as Psychological Well-Being Predictors among Children of Foreign Citizens in Russia
Гриценко, В. В., Чибисова, М. Ю., Ткаченко, Н. В., Pavlova, O. S., & Khukhlaev, O. E. (2023) · Psychological Science and Education · doi:10.17759/pse.2023280515 · Cited by 6

Authors: Smith, T. B., & Silva, L.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
ORCID: Smith, Timothy B.
Venue: Journal of Counseling Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2011
Volume: 58
Issue: 1
Pages: 42-60
ISSN: 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
1939-2168
DOI: 10.1037/a0021528
OpenAlex: W2132149499
Cited by: 779
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 74.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: ethnic identity, personal well-being, people of color, self-esteem, positive well-being, personal distress, psychiatric symptoms, adolescents and young adults, age differences, race, gender, socioeconomic status
MeSH terms: Acculturation, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Asian, Black or African American, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Quality of Life, Self Concept, Social Environment, Social Identification, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Young Adult

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

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