Cited by 779Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

Smith, Timothy B., Silva, Lynda·2011·Journal of Counseling Psychology

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Abstract

This article summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies analyzed with random effects models yielded an omnibus effect size of r = .17, suggesting a modest relationship between the 2 constructs. The relationship was somewhat stronger among adolescents and young adults than among adults over age 40. No differences were observed across participant race, gender, or socioeconomic status, which findings support the general relevance of ethnic identity across people of color. Studies correlating ethnic identity with self-esteem and positive well-being yielded average effect sizes twice as large as those from studies correlating ethnic identity with personal distress or mental health symptoms. Ethnic identity was thus more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts.

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Ethnic and Racial Identity During Adolescence and Into Young Adulthood: An Integrated Conceptualization
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., Seaton, E., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12196 · Cited by 1,245
“…and content (see discussion of limitations of existing ERI measures in Schwartz et al., in press), most ERI studies have been cross-sectional (Smith & Silva, 2011), and the few studies that have been longitudinal have been characterized by long time lags between time points (e.g., annual or…”
Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence: Implications for Psychosocial, Academic, and Health Outcomes
Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., Schwartz, S. J., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., French, S., Yip, T., et al. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12200 · Cited by 832
“For example, a recent meta-analysis suggests that an achieved, positive ethnic identity is favorably associated with self-esteem and negatively associated with depressive symptoms among ethnic minority individuals (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Transformative Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): Toward SEL in Service of Educational Equity and Excellence
Jagers, R. J., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Williams, B. V. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032 · Cited by 778
“As a result, there is a voluminous literature on ethnic/racial identity (ERI) development (cf. Rivas-Drake, Seaton, et al., 2014; Rivas-Drake, Syed, et al., 2014; T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
The intergenerational effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the concept of historical trauma
Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461513503380 · Cited by 566
“Ethnic and cultural identity is considered to be an important determinant of health among minority group members (T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes.
Wong, Y. J., Ho, M.-H. R., Wang, S.-Y., & Miller, I. S. K. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000176 · Cited by 507
“Following in part the coding scheme used by previous meta-analyses on mental health (Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013), the outcome variables were categorized as (a) negative mental health: depression, psychological distress/stress, substance use, body image problems, other psychological…”
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Authors: Smith, T. B., & Silva, L.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
ORCID: Smith, Timothy B.
Venue: Journal of Counseling Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2011
Volume: 58
Issue: 1
Pages: 42-60
ISSN: 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
1939-2168
DOI: 10.1037/a0021528
OpenAlex: W2132149499
Cited by: 779
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 74.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: ethnic identity, personal well-being, people of color, self-esteem, positive well-being, personal distress, psychiatric symptoms, adolescents and young adults, age differences, race, gender, socioeconomic status
MeSH terms: Acculturation, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Asian, Black or African American, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Quality of Life, Self Concept, Social Environment, Social Identification, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Young Adult

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

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