Cited by 779Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

Smith, Timothy B., Silva, Lynda·2011·Journal of Counseling Psychology

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Abstract

This article summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies analyzed with random effects models yielded an omnibus effect size of r = .17, suggesting a modest relationship between the 2 constructs. The relationship was somewhat stronger among adolescents and young adults than among adults over age 40. No differences were observed across participant race, gender, or socioeconomic status, which findings support the general relevance of ethnic identity across people of color. Studies correlating ethnic identity with self-esteem and positive well-being yielded average effect sizes twice as large as those from studies correlating ethnic identity with personal distress or mental health symptoms. Ethnic identity was thus more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts.

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Background
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Background
Reliability generalization of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R).
Herrington, H. M., Smith, T. B., Feinauer, E., & Griner, D. (2016) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000148 · Cited by 63
“R to those obtained for the MEIM using data reported in 75 research manuscripts that had been included in a published meta-analysis (Smith & Silva, 2011) identifying MEIM data in 30 published and 45 unpublished studies on the association between ethnic identity and well-being (including mental…”
Self-citation
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Background
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Dimitrova, R., Bender, M., Chasiotis, A., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2012) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.005 · Cited by 47
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“Ethnic identity is broadly conceptualized as a protective psychosocial factor (Phinney and Ong, 2007; Sanchez and Vargas, 2016) and it has been associated with various positive well-being outcomes among members of disadvantaged groups (Smith and Silva, 2011).”
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Identifying as American Indian/Alaska Native in Urban Areas: Implications for Adolescent Behavioral Health and Well-Being
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Background
Identity and acculturation: The case for Africa
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Background
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Butler‐Barnes, S. T., Martin, P. P., Hope, E. C., Copeland‐Linder, N., & Scott, M. L. (2018) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-018-0644-9 · Cited by 50
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Result
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“Recent studies, including meta-analyses (Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013), have found consistently that increased identification with the heritage culture can be a protective factor associated with positive well-being.”
Background
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“Ethnic identity has been defined as ‘... the degree to which individuals perceive themselves to be included and aligned with an ethnic group’ (Smith and Silva, 2011: 42).”
Background
Examining the Relationships Between Physical Functioning, Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, Familismo , and Depressive Symptoms for Latino Older Adults
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“In a meta-analysis conducted by Smith and Silva (2011), a modest relationship between ethnic identity and personal well-being was found, with stronger relationships found among adolescents and young adults, than adults above 40.”
BackgroundResult
Trauma Proliferation and Stress Generation (TPSG) dynamics and their implications for clinical science.
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Kucharska, J., Fawzi, M. H., Ashby, J. S., Omidy, A. Z., Abou-Mediene, S., & Lewandowski, L. (2018) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/ort0000304 · Cited by 43
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“Commitment to different types of identities, in different age groups, was found to be associated with better mental health in a plethora of previous literature (e.g., for meta-analysis, see Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Fairness Perceptions of Video Resumes among Ethnically Diverse Applicants
Hiemstra, A. M. F., Derous, E., Serlie, A. W., & Born, M. P. (2012) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12005 · Cited by 44
“A strong ethnic identity is related to high self-esteem and other self-image factors (Smith & Silva, 2011), which may influence a person’s behavior and perceptions.”
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Schwartz, S. J., Waterman, A. S., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., Kim, S. Y., Vazsonyi, A. T., Huynh, Q., Whitbourne, S. K., Park, I. J. K., Hudson, M., et al. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp21847 · Cited by 38
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Racial Socialization, Private Regard, and Behavior Problems in African American Youth: Global Self-Esteem as a Mediator
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“Positive racial/ethnic identity has numerous psychological benefits including positive self-esteem and efficacy (Phinney & Chavira, 1992; E. P. Smith et al., 1999; T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011) and is a component of healthy identity development for young Black people (Townsend et al., 2010).”
Ethnic identity and self‐esteem among Asian and European Americans: When a minority is the majority and the majority is a minority
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“Indeed, a recent meta-analysis supports this relation between ethnic identity and increased self-esteem, when ethnic identity was assessed by composite (i.e., exploration and affirmation/belonging combined) and single dimension measures (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Demographic group differences in domain-specific well-being
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“This finding supports research suggesting the wellbeing gap among ethnic groups is narrowing (Hughes & Thomas, 1998) and coincides with studies that actually report a potential for ethnic minority groups to have greater OWB (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Result
Being tolerated and being discriminated against: Links to psychological well‐being through threatened social identity needs
Bağci, S. Ç., Verkuyten, M., Koç, Y., Türnüklü, A., Piyale, Z. E., & Bekmezci, E. (2020) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2699 · Cited by 40
“…positive well-being compared to negative well-being which confirms previous metaanalytic findings indicating social identities to be more strongly related to positive psychological well-being and self-esteem than negative mental health symptoms such as depression and anxiety (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Result
Heritage Identity and Maintenance Enhance Well-Being of Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-German Adolescents
Dimitrova, R., Aydinli, A., Chasiotis, A., Bender, M., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2015) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000230 · Cited by 35
A randomized trial of culturally accommodated versus standard group treatment for Latina/o adolescents with substance use disorders: Posttreatment through 12-month outcomes.
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Mazzoni, D., Pancani, L., Marinucci, M., & Riva, P. (2020) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2672 · Cited by 40
Perceived Discrimination, Ethnic Identity, and Psychological Well-Being Among Arab Americans
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“Research has suggested the promotive and buffering roles of ethnic identity among various racial and/or ethnic minority groups, despite some mixed findings (e.g., Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
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“…research has shown that high identification with a stigmatized group can be positively associated with self-esteem and psychological well-being (Smith & Silva, 2011; Tropp & Wright, 2001) provided that mechanisms that reduce stress such as social and emotional support are available, although…”
Race-shifting in the United States: Latinxs, Skin Tone, and Ethnoracial Alignments
Irizarry, Y., Monk, E. P., & Cobb, R. J. (2022) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/23326492221114813 · Cited by 39
“Building on Erikson’s (1959) model of ego identity development, social identity theorists generally agree that one’s social identity includes a “persistent sharing of some kind of essential character with others” (Smith and Silva 2011:42).”
Method
Psychometric Evaluation of the Six-Item Version of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure with East Asian Adolescents in Canada
Homma, Y., Zumbo, B. D., Saewyc, E., & Wong, S. T. (2014) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2013.858227 · Cited by 33
“It has been associated with better psychosocial functioning such as higher self-esteem, fewer depressive symptoms, and a lower level of anxiety (Costigan, Koryzma, Hua, & Chance, 2010; T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor, 2011).”
Background
Why Do Pacific People with Multiple Ethnic Affiliations Have Poorer Subjective Wellbeing? Negative Ingroup Affect Mediates the Identity Tension Effect
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Family Communication and Messages about Race and Identity in Black Families in the United States
Minniear, M. J., & Soliz, J. E. (2019) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267431.2019.1593170 · Cited by 32
“Secure racial identity has implications for individual well-being (Smith & Silva, 2011) in that higher levels of racial identity predict higher levels of well-being overall.”
Background
Factors influencing the negotiation of ethnic identity among 1.5 and second‐generation Asian migrants: A mixed methods systematic review
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Intergenerational transmission of ethnic identity and life satisfaction of Roma minority adolescents and their parents
Dimitrova, R., Ferrer‐Wreder, L., & Trost, K. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.014 · Cited by 31
“…group, identifying and engaging with ethnic practices and recognizing positive virtues about own ethnic group, is positively related to life satisfaction and psychosocial adjustment in various ethnic minority groups (e.g., Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Schwartz et al., 2009; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Depression among Mexican-origin mothers: Exploring the immigrant paradox.
Calzada, E. J., & Sales, A. (2018) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000214 · Cited by 31
“In support of this hypothesis, a robust literature shows that a strong ethnic identity, or sense of commitment and belonging to one’s culture of origin, attenuates risk for mental health problems, possibly by fostering a high self-esteem (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Never Mind the Acculturation Gap: Migrant Youth’s Wellbeing Benefit when They Retain Their Heritage Culture but Their Parents Adopt the Settlement Culture
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Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measurement invariance across adolescence and diverse ethnic groups
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Cvetkovska, S., Verkuyten, M., & Adelman, L. (2019) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.10.010 · Cited by 39
Ethnic identity, perceived support, and depressive symptoms among racial minority immigrant-origin adolescents.
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Coping Strategies of Adults with High-Functioning Autism: A Qualitative Analysis
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Wantchekon, K. A., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01451-x · Cited by 34
Socialization and well-being in multiracial individuals: A moderated mediation model of racial ambiguity and identity.
Villegas-Gold, R., & Tran, A. G. T. T. (2018) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000277 · Cited by 37
The effects of race/ethnicity and racial/ethnic identification on general trust
Stets, J. E., & Fares, P. (2019) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.02.001 · Cited by 32
Profiles of Adolescent Identity at the Intersection of Ethnic/Racial Identity, American Identity, and Subjective Social Status
Cheon, Y. M., Ip, P. S., Haskin, M., & Yip, T. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00959 · Cited by 34
Ethnic Identity and Positive Youth Development in Adolescent Males: A Culturally Integrated Approach
Williams, J. L., Anderson, R. E., Francois, A. G., Hussain, S. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2014) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2014.894871 · Cited by 36
“There is fairly consistent evidence that ethnic identity is positively related to self-esteem and other aspects of well-being (Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997; Smith & Silva, 2011), which suggests that self-esteem may mediate the relations between ethnic identity and other outcomes.”
Background
Ethnic identity developmental trajectories during the transition to college
Zhou, X., Lee, R. M., & Syed, M. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000634 · Cited by 26
“Overall, ethnic-racial minority youth were found to differ occasionally in levels of ethnic identity exploration or commitment, but rarely in the change of ethnic identity development or correlations with other variables (e.g., Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, and 12-Month Psychiatric Service Utilization Among Black and Hispanic Adults in the U.S.
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Perceptions of parents’ ethnic identities and the personal ethnic-identity and racial attitudes of biracial adults.
Stepney, C., Sanchez, D. T., & Handy, P. E. (2014) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037542 · Cited by 28
“In a recent meta-analysis, Smith and Silva (2011) found a consistent, positive relationship between ethnic identity among people of color and personal well-being and self-esteem, with the strongest effect for adolescents and young adults, but still existent in adulthood.”
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Disciplined to access the general education curriculum: Girls of color, disabilities, and specialized education programming
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“Second, racism and colorism play a role in their mental health (Breland-Noble, 2013; Santana, AlmeidaFilho, Roberts, & Cooper, 2007), so the experiences that trigger or undergird mental disorders differ across race (Laster Pirtle & Brown, 2016; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
A review of sociocultural factors that may underlie differences in African American and European American anxiety
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“…and mental health (Clark et al., 1999; Brondolo, Brady Ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009; Brondolo, Rieppi, Kelly, & Gerin; 2003; Brown, Meadows, & Elder, 2007; Gee, Ro, Shariff-Marco, & Chae, 2009; Jackson et al., 2010; Outlaw, 1993; Smith & Silva, 2011; D. R. Williams et al., 2008).”
Background
The Role of Familial Incarceration and Ethnic Identity in Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempt: Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Latinx Young Adults in California
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“Ethnic identification may function as a protective or risk factor depending on the outcomes being measured (Schwartz et al., 2010; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure – Revised (MEIM-R): Psychometric evaluation with adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups in Italy
Musso, P., Moscardino, U. M. M., & Inguglia, C. (2017) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2016.1278363 · Cited by 32
“Particularly, research indicates that a strong ethnic identity promotes higher self-esteem, better coping abilities, and increased mastery (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Perceptions of general and postpresidential election discrimination are associated with loss of control eating among racially/ethnically diverse young men
Kelly, N., Smith, T. M., Hall, G. N. N., Guidinger, C., Williamson, G., Budd, E. L., & Giuliani, N. (2018) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22803 · Cited by 21
“Ethnic identity is fairly consistently associated with positive well-being (Smith & Silva, 2011) and selfesteem (Espinosa et al., 2016) across many racial/ethnic groups.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The role of identity and psychosomatic symptoms as mediating the relationship between discrimination and risk behaviors among first and second generation immigrant adolescents
Walsh, S. D., Kolobov, T., Raiz, Y., Boniel‐Nissim, M., Tesler, R., & Harel‐Fisch, Y. (2018) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.01.004 · Cited by 27
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“More specifically, racial identity beliefs, especially positive feelings about one’s race, are positively associated with academic adjustment, well-being, social functioning, and self-esteem, and negatively associated with depressive symptoms, externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors, and health risk outcomes…”
Background
Cultural inertia, identity, and intergroup dynamics in a changing context
Zárate, M. A., Reyna, C., & Álvarez, M. J. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.11.001 · Cited by 31
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Grindal, M., & Nieri, T. A. (2015) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-015-9154-5 · Cited by 26
The culture of mentoring: Ethnocultural empathy and ethnic identity in mentoring for minority girls.
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Measuring racial microaggression in medical practice
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“Furthermore, the phrase ‘people of color’ is commonly used in the literature of racial identity, ethnic identity, as well as racism-related stress research (Harrell 2000; Helms 1995; Smith and Silva 2011).”
Background
Arab American Emerging Adults’ Ethnic Identity and Its Relation to Psychological Well-Being
Sheldon, J. P., Oliver, D. G., & Balaghi, D. (2015) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696815597601 · Cited by 25
“…and self-esteem are conceptually similar (in that both include positive affect about oneself) and much of the previous research demonstrating an association between Affirmation & Belonging and psychological well-being has used self-esteem as a measure of well-being (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Moral identity in relation to emotional well-being: a meta-analysis
Goering, M., Espinoza, C. N., Mercier, A., Eason, E. K., Johnson, C. W., & Richter, C. G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1346732 · Cited by 37
Exploring the Hierarchical Structure of Pacific Identity and Wellbeing
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“Nevertheless, much research has been conducted examining the relationship between the two constructs (see Smith and Silva 2011 for a review).”
Background
Profiles of Ethnic-Racial Identity, Socialization, and Model Minority Experiences: Associations with Well-Being Among Asian American Adolescents
Xie, M., Fowle, J., Ip, P. S., Haskin, M., & Yip, T. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01436-w · Cited by 30
“Over the past twenty years, ethnic-racial identity has been linked to adaptative outcomes in psychosocial, academic, and health domains (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Smith & Silva, 2011), highlighting promotive and protective effects among youth of color.”
Background

Authors: Smith, T. B., & Silva, L.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
ORCID: Smith, Timothy B.
Venue: Journal of Counseling Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2011
Volume: 58
Issue: 1
Pages: 42-60
ISSN: 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
1939-2168
DOI: 10.1037/a0021528
OpenAlex: W2132149499
Cited by: 779
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 74.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: ethnic identity, personal well-being, people of color, self-esteem, positive well-being, personal distress, psychiatric symptoms, adolescents and young adults, age differences, race, gender, socioeconomic status
MeSH terms: Acculturation, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Asian, Black or African American, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Quality of Life, Self Concept, Social Environment, Social Identification, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Young Adult

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

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