Cited by 779Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

Smith, Timothy B., Silva, Lynda·2011·Journal of Counseling Psychology

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Abstract

This article summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies analyzed with random effects models yielded an omnibus effect size of r = .17, suggesting a modest relationship between the 2 constructs. The relationship was somewhat stronger among adolescents and young adults than among adults over age 40. No differences were observed across participant race, gender, or socioeconomic status, which findings support the general relevance of ethnic identity across people of color. Studies correlating ethnic identity with self-esteem and positive well-being yielded average effect sizes twice as large as those from studies correlating ethnic identity with personal distress or mental health symptoms. Ethnic identity was thus more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts.

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“…and content (see discussion of limitations of existing ERI measures in Schwartz et al., in press), most ERI studies have been cross-sectional (Smith & Silva, 2011), and the few studies that have been longitudinal have been characterized by long time lags between time points (e.g., annual or…”
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Background
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Background
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Background
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Background
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Background
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Result
Acculturation, discrimination, and depression among unauthorized Latinos/as in the United States.
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BackgroundInfluential
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Background
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“…& Byrnes, Ethnic-Racial Identity and Risk and Resilience 299Human Development 2021;65:293–310 DOI: 10.1159/000519631 2016; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014b; Smith & Silva, 2011), with few exceptions, the effect sizes were not significantly different across panethnic and racial groups included in the…”
BackgroundInfluential
“Another Kind of Swede”
Gyberg, F., Frisén, A., Syed, M., Wängqvist, M., & Svensson, Y. (2017) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696817690087 · Cited by 81
“However, there has been very little support in prior research for gender differences with regard to the process of ethnic identity (Rivas-Drake, Seaton, et al., 2014; Rivas-Drake, Syed, et al., 2014; Smith & Silva, 2011), although gender differences in content have been scantly studied.”
BackgroundResult
Further Conceptualizing Ethnic and Racial Identity Research: The Social Identity Approach and Its Dynamic Model
Verkuyten, M. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12555 · Cited by 83
Perceived Discrimination and Its Associations With Mental Health and Substance Use Among Asian American and Pacific Islander Undergraduate and Graduate Students
Chen, A. C., Szalacha, L. A., & Menon, U. (2014) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2014.917648 · Cited by 76
“Promoting ethnic identity or pride, a dimension of cultural socialization, has been found to be positively associated with individual well-being in ethnic minority populations.(24) DiClemente and colleagues(25) found that promoting young African American women’s ethnic pride motivated them to adapt safer sex practices.”
Background
The Associations Between Internalized Racism, Racial Identity, and Psychological Distress
Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., Bernard, D. L., Neal, A., & Neblett, E. W. (2021) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968211005598 · Cited by 75
“…for the protective role of racial identity in the relationship between interpersonal experiences of race-related stress and depressive symptoms (i.e., Smith & Silva, 2011), it is not known if racial identity is protective in the relationship between internalized racism and psychological well-being.”
Background
Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Adjustment Among Ethnically Diverse College Students: Family and Peer Support as Protective Factors
Juang, L. P., Ittel, A., Hoferichter, F., & Gallarin, M. M. (2016) · Journal of college student development · doi:10.1353/csd.2016.0048 · Cited by 87
“Unequivocally, studies show that greater perceived discrimination is linked with poorer adjustment (Brody et al., 2006; Gibbons et al., 2010; Simons et al., 2006; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The role of racial/ethnic identity in the association between racial discrimination and psychiatric disorders: A buffer or exacerbator?
Woo, B., Fan, W., Tran, T. V., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2019) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100378 · Cited by 76
The relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI: 2005–2018 NHANES data
He, K., Pang, T., & Huang, H. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.046 · Cited by 75
Identity Development in Immigrant Youth
Schwartz, S. J., Meca, A., Cano, M. Á., Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I., & Unger, J. B. (2018) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000335 · Cited by 81
“In terms of direct effects, using meta-analytic methods, Smith and Silva (2011) found ethnic identity to be positively linked to self-esteem, life satisfaction, and other forms of well-being.”
Method
An update on the assessment of culture and environment in the ABCD Study®: Emerging literature and protocol updates over three measurement waves
González, R., Thompson, E. L., Sánchez, M., Morris, A. S., Gonzalez, M. R., Ewing, S. W. F., Mason, M. J., Arroyo, J. A., Howlett, K. D., Tapert, S. F., et al. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.101021 · Cited by 73
Examining the Protective Effect of Ethnic Identity on Drug Attitudes and Use Among a Diverse Youth Population
Zapolski, T. C. B., Fisher, S. D., Banks, D. E., Hensel, D. J., & Barnes-Najor, J. V. (2016) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0605-0 · Cited by 74
“…for alcohol use and related problems (Caldwell, Sellers, Berat, & Zimmerman, 2004; Marsiglia, Kulis, & Hecht, 2001; Nasim, Belgrave, Jagers, Wilson, & Owens, 2007; Yu & Stiffman, 2007), marijuana use (e.g. Marsiglia, Kulis, Hecht, & Sills, 2004), and drug use more broadly (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Perceived discrimination, ruminative subtypes, and risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood.
Miranda, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Tsypes, A., & Valderrama, J. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033504 · Cited by 68
The Experience of Ethnic and Racial Group Membership Among Immigrant-Origin Adolescents
Tummala–Narra, P., & Sathasivam‐Rueckert, N. (2015) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558415592178 · Cited by 74
“…well-being (e.g., self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and academic adjustment among adolescents and young adults across gender, social class, educational level, and diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds (Costigan, Koryzma, Hua, & Chance, 2010; Rogers-Sirin & Gupta, 2012; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Dimensions of belonging as an aspect of racial-ethnic-cultural identity: An exploration of indigenous Australians.
Neville, H. A., Oyama, K. E., Cabirou, L. O., & Huggins, J. (2014) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037115 · Cited by 66
Linked fate and mental health among African Americans
Monk, E. P. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113340 · Cited by 73
Ethnic‐Racial Socialization and Its Correlates in Families of Black–White Biracial Children
Csizmadia, A., Rollins, A., & Kaneakua, J. P. (2014) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12062 · Cited by 61
Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and antisocial behaviors among Asian American college students: Testing the moderating roles of ethnic and American identity.
Park, I. J. K., Schwartz, S. J., Lee, R. M., Kim, M., & Rodríguez, L. (2012) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028640 · Cited by 66
“Ethnic Identity as a Moderator Ethnic identity is a multidimensional, dynamic construct (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Foundations of multicultural psychology: Research to inform effective practice.
Smith, T. B., & Trimble, J. E. (2016) · doi:10.1037/14733-000 · Cited by 132
Self-citation
Developing an Ethnic-Racial Identity Intervention from a Developmental Perspective: Process, Content, and Implementation of the Identity Project
Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Douglass, S. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43645-6_26 · Cited by 64
Transgender people of color’s experiences of sexual objectification: Locating sexual objectification within a matrix of domination.
Flores, M. J., Watson, L. B., Allen, L. R., Ford, M., Serpe, C. R., Choo, P. Y., & Farrell, M. (2018) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000279 · Cited by 76
Acculturation, cultural identity and well-being
Ward, C. A., & Szabó, Á. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00171-2 · Cited by 89
Chinese Migrant Adolescents’ Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being: The Moderating Roles of Group Identity and the Type of School
Liu, X., & Zhao, J. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146559 · Cited by 63
Psychosociocultural structural model of college success among Latina/o students in Hispanic-serving institutions.
Chun, H., Marin, M., Schwartz, J. P., Pham, A. V., & Castro-Olivo, S. M. (2016) · Journal of Diversity in Higher Education · doi:10.1037/a0039881 · Cited by 65
An invitation to analytic abduction
Halpin, M., & Richard, N. (2021) · Methods in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.metip.2021.100052 · Cited by 62
Political engagement and wellbeing among college students
Ballard, P. J., Ni, X., & Brocato, N. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101209 · Cited by 61
Do High School Students With a Same-Race Teacher Attend Class More Often?
Gottfried, M. A., Kirksey, J. J., & Fletcher, T. L. (2021) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737211032241 · Cited by 66
“As mentioned above, schools and teachers can contribute to a students’ sen semaking of this identity, which ultimately impacts students’ engagement with school and eventual school success (Datnow & Cooper, 1997; Rosenbloom & Way, 2004; Stevenson & Arrington, 2009).”
Background
Birds of an ethnic feather? Ethnic identity homophily among college‐age friends
Syed, M., & Juan, M. J. D. (2011) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.012 · Cited by 64
Effects of language of assessment on the measurement of acculturation: Measurement equivalence and cultural frame switching.
Schwartz, S. J., Benet‐Martínez, V., Knight, G. P., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., Rosiers, S. E. D., Stephens, D. P., Huang, S., & Szapocznik, J. (2013) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0034717 · Cited by 74
“…(Tajfel & Turner, 1986) holds that being attached to a cultural stream (the United States, one’s country of origin, or both) serves as a source of self-esteem and protects against internalizing symptoms (cf. A.-M. D. Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013; Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon, Langrehr, & Ong, 2011).”
Communicating for One’s Family: An Interdisciplinary Review of Language and Cultural Brokering in Immigrant Families
AKam, J., & Lazarevic, V. (2014) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2014.11679157 · Cited by 60
“Similarly, Smith and Silva (2011) found in their meta-analysis that ethnic identification was positively related to a sense of well-being (e.g., self-esteem), and the authors suggested that maintaining a strong ethnic identity means that individuals are aware of the valuable and desirable aspects…”
Background
Putting identity into the community: Exploring the social dynamics of urban regeneration
Heath, S. C., Rabinovich, A., & Barreto, M. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2296 · Cited by 69
More than a black and white issue: ethnic identity, social dominance orientation, and support for the black lives matter movement
Holt, L. F., & Sweitzer, M. D. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1524788 · Cited by 59
“Ethnic identity is more expansive, including customs, shared language, traditions, and pride in a group’s accomplishments (Hecht & Ribeau, 1991; Smith & Silva, 2011; Wong & Longshore, 2008).”
Background
The Moderating Role of Centrality on Associations Between Ethnic Identity Affirmation and Ethnic Minority College Students’ Mental Health
Loyd, A. B., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., Zamboanga, B. L., Kim, S. Y., Weisskirch, R. S., Castillo, L. G., Whitbourne, S. K., Hurley, E. A., Huynh, Q., et al. (2013) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2013.773904 · Cited by 68
Explaining the Immigrant Paradox : The Influence of Acculturation, Enculturation, and Acculturative Stress on Problematic Alcohol Consumption
Alamilla, S. G., Barney, B. J., Small, R., Wang, S. C., Schwartz, S. J., Donovan, R. A., & Lewis, C. (2019) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2018.1539945 · Cited by 60
“has been shown to be protective against alcohol use among at-risk African American youth and Asian American adults,(31,32) in the same way that ethnic identity has been shown to play a positive role for ethnic minority mental health and well-being.(33) Similarly, collectivistic values are protective for recently arriv…”
Background
Cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression: Links to racial‐ethnic discrimination and adjustment among Latino/a and Asian‐heritage college students
Juang, L. P., Moffitt, U., Kim, S. Y., Lee, R. M., Soto, J. A., Hurley, E. A., Weisskirch, R. S., Blozis, S. A., Castillo, L. G., Huynh, Q., et al. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.08.012 · Cited by 71
“Nonetheless, there are important similarities across ethnic groups in the United States (e.g., being of minority status) that translate into similar patterns, such as experiencing discrimination and the consistent links to poorer adjustment, regardless of ethnic group (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Background
Cultural identity and mental health: Differing trajectories among Asian and Latino youth.
Rogers‐Sirin, L., & Gupta, T. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029329 · Cited by 71
A threatened identity: The mental health status of Syrian refugees in Egypt and its etiology
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H., Rice, K., Al Ibraheem, B., & Aljakoub, J. (2017) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2017.1340163 · Cited by 56
“Empirical studies have focused on various violated collective identities—racial identity (e.g., Lee & Ahn, 2011), ethnic identity (e.g., Smith & Silva, 2011), Native American identity (e.g., Galliher, Jones, & Dahl, 2011), gender identity (e.g., Kira, Omidy, et al., 2015; Kira, Shuwiekh, &…”
Background
Asian American mental health: Longitudinal trend and explanatory factors among young Filipino- and Korean Americans
Choi, Y., Park, M., Noh, S., Lee, J. P., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2020) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100542 · Cited by 56
Developing Identification with Humanity and Social Well-Being Through Social Identification with Peer Groups in Adolescence
Albarello, F., Crocetti, E., & Rubini, M. (2020) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01214-0 · Cited by 76
A Meta-Analysis of Acculturation and Enculturation: Bilinear, Multidimensional, and Context-Dependent Processes
Yoon, E., Cabirou, L. O., Galvin, S., Hill, L., Daskalova, P., Bhang, C. H., Mustaffa, E. A., Dao, A., Thomas, K., & Baltazar, B. (2020) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000019898583 · Cited by 67
“Overall, we attempted to minimize violation of statistical independence as well as include as much information as possible (Pieterse, Todd, Neville, & Carter, 2012; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Method
On the need to broaden the concept of ethnic identity
van de Vijver, F. J. R., Blommaert, J., Gkoumasi, G., & Stogianni, M. (2015) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.021 · Cited by 54

Authors: Smith, T. B., & Silva, L.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
ORCID: Smith, Timothy B.
Venue: Journal of Counseling Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2011
Volume: 58
Issue: 1
Pages: 42-60
ISSN: 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
1939-2168
DOI: 10.1037/a0021528
OpenAlex: W2132149499
Cited by: 779
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 74.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: ethnic identity, personal well-being, people of color, self-esteem, positive well-being, personal distress, psychiatric symptoms, adolescents and young adults, age differences, race, gender, socioeconomic status
MeSH terms: Acculturation, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Asian, Black or African American, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Quality of Life, Self Concept, Social Environment, Social Identification, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Young Adult

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Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis

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