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The influence of mortality and socioeconomic status on risk and delayed rewards: A life history theory approach.
Open accessAbstract
Why do some people take risks and live for the present, whereas others avoid risks and save for the future? The evolutionary framework of life history theory predicts that preferences for risk and delay in gratification should be influenced by mortality and resource scarcity. A series of experiments examined how mortality cues influenced decisions involving risk preference (e.g., $10 for sure vs. 50% chance of $20) and temporal discounting (e.g., $5 now vs. $10 later). The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment. For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards. Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles. Overall, mortality cues appear to propel individuals toward diverging life history strategies as a function of childhood socioeconomic status, suggesting important implications for how environmental factors influence economic decisions and risky behaviors.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across three experiments, mortality cues shifted financial risk and delayed-reward preferences in opposite directions depending on childhood socioeconomic status (SES). People from relatively resource-scarce childhoods became more present-oriented and risk-taking after mortality cues, whereas those from relatively resource-plentiful childhoods became more future-oriented and risk-averse.
Key findings
- In Experiment 1, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on risk taking, \(F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01\); at 1 SD below the childhood-SES mean, mortality increased risk taking, \(t(93) = 2.60, p < .05, \eta^2 = .07\), while at 1 SD above the mean there was a nonsignificant trend toward less risk taking, \(t(93) = 1.10, p = .27, \eta^2 = .01\). Current/expected SES did not significantly interact with prime, \(F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14\).
- In Experiment 2, mortality cues again interacted with childhood SES for risk, \(F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001, \eta^2 = .17\): lower childhood SES participants took more risk after mortality cues, \(t(67) = 3.57, p < .01, \eta^2 = .14\), and higher childhood SES participants took less risk, \(t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, \eta^2 = .10\). For time preference, the interaction was \(F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, \eta^2 = .046\); lower childhood SES participants preferred the present, \(t(67) = 1.62, p = .06, \eta^2 = .04\), and higher childhood SES participants preferred the future, \(t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, \eta^2 = .04\).
- In Experiment 3, using childhood family income, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on time preference, \(F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005\); at 1 SD above the mean, mortality increased future valuation, \(t(40) = 2.55, p = .023, \eta^2 = .12\), while at 1 SD below the mean there was a marginally significant increase in valuing the present, \(t(40) = 1.46, p = .08, \eta^2 = .04\).
- Overall, the authors conclude that mortality cues can propel individuals toward diverging life-history strategies as a function of childhood SES, with implications for economic decisions and risky behavior.
Methods
- Three experiments with university students: Experiment 1 had 97 participants (67 male, 30 female); Experiment 2 had 71 participants (36 male, 35 female; mean age = 20.8 years); Experiment 3 had 44 participants (mean age = 20.3 years). Participants were seated at computers and randomly assigned to mortality-prime or control conditions using a fictitious news article.
- Dependent measures involved dichotomous financial choices assessing risk preference and temporal discounting. Childhood SES was measured with subjective items in Experiments 1 and 2 and with recalled household family income in Experiment 3; Experiment 1 also measured current/future SES.
- Analyses used general linear models/ANOVA to test Prime × Childhood SES interactions, followed by simple-effects tests at ±1 SD of childhood SES. Experiment 2 used directed tests allocating .04 of alpha to the predicted direction and .01 to the unpredicted direction.
Limitations
- The paper states that the sample had a relatively limited range of SES, which may have reduced power to detect the interaction and means the low-SES participants were relatively affluent compared with the full global and historical range; effects might be stronger at SES extremes.
- The paper states that future research is needed on the psychological and physiological mechanisms, critical periods in childhood, distinctions between extrinsic and intrinsic mortality, and whether findings generalize to other types of risk and more diverse populations.
- Evident from the text: all samples were university students, the financial choices were hypothetical lab measures rather than actual financial behavior, Experiment 3 had a small sample (\(N = 44\)), and several simple effects were marginal (\(p = .06\) or \(p = .08\)).
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A main effect of participant sex emerged, whereby women took less risk than men (p = .029).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An analysis of potential interactions did not reveal a three-way interaction with participant sex, prime, and either type of SES or a two-way interaction with participant sex and prime or with participant sex and either type of SES (ps > .20).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, participants from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—took significantly less risk when primed with mortality, t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, η2 = .10.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, those from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—showed a preference for the future, choosing more larger, delayed rewards when primed with mortality, t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, η2 = .04.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For time preference, prime also interacted with childhood SES, F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, η2 = .046”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the findings from the second experiment, there was an interaction between prime and childhood family income, F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005 (see Figure 4).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“For example, we found in the current studies and in previous work (Griskevicius et al., 2010) that childhood SES had consistently stronger moderating effects than did current SES.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 12
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also important to note that the pattern for risk preferences in the control conditions was often the reverse (albeit not significantly so) of that in the mortality conditions.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For time preference, mortality cues also had a different effect as a function of childhood SES: Mortality cues led people with higher SES childhoods to value the future and led those with lower SES childhoods to value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, individuals who grew up with relatively more resources responded to mortality cues by preferring lower risk but lower yield rewards (although a test of this simple effect did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance in this study).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For people who grew up in relatively resource-plentiful environments, mortality cues led them to take less risk and value the future more.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, mortality cues led people who grew up in relatively resource-scarce environments to prefer more risk and value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For risk, findings replicated the pattern found in the first study: Mortality cues led people who grew up in resource-plentiful environments to take fewer risks and led those who grew up in resource-scarce environments to take more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
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In the paper
“In a study examining the association between life expectancy at birth (an indicator of mortality) and age at first birth in 170 nations, variation in life expectancy accounted for 74% of the variation in age at first birth, with shorter life expectancy predicting earlier age at first birth (Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008
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In the paper
“Thus, we propose that slow and fast life history strategies are linked to specific preferences for risk: Whereas a slower strategy should be associated with preference for less risk, a faster strategy should be associated with preference for more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Strategies and Risk
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites E. Hill, Ross, & Low, 1997
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the psychology and behavior associated with different life history strategies might be dormant in benign environments but may be especially likely to emerge in conditions that suggest environmental unpredictability and harshness.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
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In the paper
“Although people generally having a slow life history strategy characterized by a long developmental period, heavy investment in a few offspring, and a long expected life span (Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000), some individuals reach sexual maturity and become sexually active earlier, whereas others delay reproduction and invest more in embodied capital (Ellis, 2004).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000
- Not checked yetcites Ellis, 2004
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, members of species that typically live under conditions of high environmental unpredictability and harshness (e.g., seasonal hurricane threat that may kill large proportions of the population) do not gain much from high investment in somatic effort, as that investment could be wiped out by forces outside that organism's control. Instead, such species evolve a relatively fast strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Environmental Contingency in Life History Strategies
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In the paper
“Although the factors were moderately correlated (r = .41), they were nevertheless empirically distinct.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pilot testing revealed that the two articles elicited the same amount of general arousal, but the mortality prime led participants to view the world as more uncertain and more unsafe (for additional details, see Griskevicius et al., 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
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In the paper
“Indeed, research shows that responses to stress are moderated by a person's genotype (Caspi et al., 2003).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Caspi et al., 2003
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pattern of results in Experiment 3—with additional measures of time preference and a different measure of childhood SES—converged with the results found in Experiment 2: Individuals adopting a slower life history strategy responded to cues of mortality by valuing the future, whereas individuals adopting a faster strategy responded by valuing the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Directed tests allocate .04 of a total alpha level of .05 to the predicted direction of a test statistic and .01 to the unpredicted direction (see, e.g., Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, & Simpson, 2007).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Braver, 1975
- Not checked yetcites Rice & Gaines, 1994
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In the paper
“This model suggests that individuals in a good state are prepared to take relatively large risks, in line with what we found for people with higher SES childhood when there was no immediate threat.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we suggest that individuals who grew up in higher SES environments should typically perceive cues to danger as indicating intrinsic mortality, whereas those who grew up in lower SES environments should perceive the same danger cues as indicative of extrinsic mortality.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of the two questions was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A suspicion probe during survey development showed that participants believed this cover story, and they made no connections between the financial questions and news articles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we created a composite for childhood SES (α = .87) and a composite for current SES (α = .70), analyzing each one separately.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, when a person's state becomes dire, such as a low-SES childhood combined with prevalent mortality threat, there is an abrupt shift toward being totally risk prone (Nettle, 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Life history theory predicts that a preference for the future should be associated with a slower life history strategy; organisms with slow life histories “expect” that they will be alive in the future and thus can benefit by waiting for a larger but delayed reward. Conversely, a preference for the present should be associated with a faster strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan et al., 2000
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of whether participants first answered the risk items or the time items was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A principal-axis factor analysis of the six SES items yielded two factors with eigenvalues above 1.0 (3.34 and 1.07).”
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
“The first rotated factor consisted of the three childhood SES items, and it accounted for 47% of item variance. The second rotated factor consisted of the three current SES items, and it accounted for 27% of item variance.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This possible mechanism suggests that psychologies associated with different life history strategies might lay “dormant” in benign ecological conditions but might become enacted in critical conditions suggesting ecological harshness and unpredictability.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This differential sensitization in childhood ought to affect how individuals respond to certain ecological variables later in life.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
In the paper
“Whereas the prevalence of extrinsic mortality is linked to faster life history strategies, the prevalence of intrinsic mortality is linked to the adoption of slower strategies (Ellis et al., 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This specific pattern is consistent with a fast life history strategy, which entails taking risks for big immediate payoffs and preferring to get any kind of certain reward now rather than a potentially larger reward later.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, all of the items showed highly similar patterns, and thus they were combined into a time preference index (α = .90).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Method
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This work substantially extends previous work by demonstrating that life history strategies are not only important for directing reproductive decisions (e.g., when to reproduce) but are also important for behaviors such as financial decision making and desire for immediate versus delayed rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, this restriction may have actually reduced our power to detect a significant interaction between childhood SES and mortality cues, because our low-SES participants developed in conditions that were relatively affluent compared to the full range of economic conditions worldwide and historically.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
“Throughout this paper, we have assumed that life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Our findings also dovetail with recent evidence that scarcity is cognitively taxing (28)(29)(30) and thus may undermine an individual's ability to regulate unintended prejudices.”
From Economic scarcity alters the perception of race (2014) · cites this paper as [28]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value: t(40) = 2.55, p = .023
MinorThe paper reports p = .023 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .015 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
Inconsistent p-value: F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14
MinorThe paper reports p = .14 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .133. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 93) = 2.3reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
- Doesn’t add upt(40) = 2.55reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
- Not confirmedF(1, 67) = 3.2reported p = .048 · recomputed p = .078
“F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048”
- ConsistentF(1, 93) = 6.86reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01”
- Consistentt(93) = 2.6reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .011
“t(93) = 2.60, p < .05”
- Consistentt(93) = 1.1reported p = .27 · recomputed p = .274
“t(93) = 1.10, p = .27”
- ConsistentF(1, 67) = 13.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001”
- Consistentt(67) = 3.57reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“t(67) = 3.57, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 2.84reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006
“t(67) = 2.84, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 1.62reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .110
“t(67) = 1.62, p = .06”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(67) = 1.71reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .092
“t(67) = 1.71, p = .05”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- ConsistentF(1, 40) = 7.55reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .009
“F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(40) = 1.46reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .152
“t(40) = 1.46, p = .08”
The paper states a one-tailed test
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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“Because natural selection favors allocation strategies that optimize resource use over the life course (Schaffer, 1983; Williams, 1957), evolutionary biologists and behavioral ecologists developed life history theory to help explain how and why organisms, including humans, allocate resources to…”
Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach
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The interaction of TIGIT with PVR and PVRL2 inhibits human NK cell cytotoxicity
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Charnov EL Life history invariants 1993 Oxford University Press Oxford, England
- Horn HS Rubenstein DI Krebs JR Davies NB Behavioral adaptations and life history. Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach 1984 279 300 Blackwell Oxford, England 2nd ed.
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How exposure to natural scenes can promote weight control behaviors: A replication experiment
Chang, Y. Y., & Chiou, W. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102413 · Cited by 5
Akao, K. A., Adair, L., & Brase, G. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.071 · Cited by 4
Attitudes: An Evolutionary Perspective
Lord, C. G., Hill, S. E., Holland, C. J., Yoke, K., & Lu, T. (2015) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12697-5_14 · Cited by 4
“The researchers reasoned that people often confront a tradeoff between expending energy on looking after themselves versus on having children (Griskevicius et al. 2011), so thinking there were few eligible men might make women put off plans to get married and have children, concentrating instead on pursuing a lucrativ…”
BackgroundStuck in the heat or stuck in the hierarchy? Power relations explain regional variations in violence
Weick, M., Vasiljevic, M., Üskül, A. K., et al. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1600114x · Cited by 4
Ott, M., Bozeman, B. L., & Taggart, G. (2018) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.12491 · Cited by 4
Cooperation as a signal of time preferencesPreprint
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Nettle, D., Chevallier, C., de Courson, B., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ntsvp · Cited by 4
Yin, X., Wang, D., Li, Z., & Huang, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.709320 · Cited by 8
Wang, H., & Huang, D. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112622 · Cited by 3
Association of life history strategy and mate retention behavior in men and women
Pazhouhi, S., Garza, R., & Pazhoohi, F. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112685 · Cited by 3
“An additional measure for income, the Perceived Resources Availability scale (Griskevicius et al., 2011) was used to measure men ’ s childhood and adult perceived social economic status (Cronbach α = 0.74).”
MethodInfluentialFounders’ Social Class Origin, Risk-Taking, and Venture Performance: A Bourdieusian Lens
Moergen, K. J. N., Hayman, M. G., Cummings, M. E., & Pidduck, R. J. (2025) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/10422587251371486 · Cited by 6
The Multiple Perspectives Approach to Understanding Sexual-Economic Exchange
Meskó, N. (2025) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-025-03259-3 · Cited by 6
“Conversely, when men outnumber women, sexual norms become more conservative, reflecting increased competition and higher standards for male contributions (Griskevicius et al., 2011).”
Reyes, M., & Clark, E. M. (2024) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-024-10197-0 · Cited by 3
“Relatedly, those with a fast life history strategy tend to be present-oriented rather than future-oriented (Griskevicius et al., 2011; Mishra et al., 2017), and thus, those with a fast life history strategy tend to have more of an unrestricted sociosexual orientation (Simpson et al., 2012; Strouts…”
Schumacher, A., & Micheli, L. R. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0294497 · Cited by 5
Maranges, H. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2024) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2024.2338825 · Cited by 3
Children’s saving: A review and proposed ecological framework
Kamber, E., Atance, C., Kamawar, D., & Mahy, C. E. V. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101163 · Cited by 8
“Various cognitive, personality, and social factors influence saving in adulthood (e.g., Griskevicius et al., 2011; Maison et al., 2019; Rha et al., 2006, Table 1).”
Ambition as a doubled-edged sword: Career success and unethical behavior
O’Reilly, C. A., & Pfeffer, J. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112942 · Cited by 3
Li, W., Zhao, Y., Lan, S., & Guan, L. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113039 · Cited by 3
Łukasik, A., & Wołpiuk‐Ochocińska, A. (2025) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/14747049251349052 · Cited by 3
“This means that the variables important for determining reproductive strategy, such as the number of children or age at fi rst childbirth (Chisholm, 1993, 1999; Griskevicius et al., 2011a; Griskevicius et al., 2011b; Sýkorová & Flegr, 2021) could not be considered.”
Li, X., Feng, Y., Xue, Z., & Yao, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03148-3 · Cited by 4
“Recent empirical work demonstrates an inverse association between Childhood SES and conspicuous consumption, with higher SES correlating with pro-environmental purchasing behaviors [8].”
InfluentialKu, X., & Kim, S. (2020) · Military Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/21635781.2020.1717689 · Cited by 3
Darwin beats malthus: evolutionary anthropology, human capital and the demographic transition
Mühlhoff, K. (2021) · Cliometrica · doi:10.1007/s11698-021-00234-5 · Cited by 3
段, 羽. (2022) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2022.124177 · Cited by 3
Geng, X., Xu, J., Li, Y., Zhang, F., Sun, X., & Yu, H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192215254 · Cited by 4
Market mindset reduces endorsement of individualizing moral foundations, but not in liberals
Zaleśkiewicz, T., Gąsiorowska, A., & Kuzminska, A. O. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.8163 · Cited by 2
“Finally, participants reported, in a random order, their political orientation (same as in Experiment 1) and subjective SES (Griskevicius et al., 2011; 1 = “strongly disagree,” 5 = “strongly agree”).”
BackgroundInfluentialŠirola, N. (2023) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2023.104292 · Cited by 3
Xiao, B., Xin, Z., & Wang, L. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2023.112505 · Cited by 3
Kim, J. P., & Suh, E. M. (2024) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00760-9 · Cited by 3
“…exists suggesting that a person’s early environment is associated with a wide array of behaviors in life, such as childbearing, financial decisions, and health habits (e.g., Brumbach et al., 2009 ; Griskevicius et al., 2011a ; Laran & Salerno, 2013 ; Net - tle, 2010; Simpson et al., 2012 ).”
InfluentialYong, J. C., Lim, C. H., Jonason, P. K., & Thomas, A. G. (2024) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-024-02955-w · Cited by 4
“The company provided data for each country through Excel files, with the largest samples (e.g., USA, Germany, France) containing membership records for over 1 million individuals.”
InfluentialCai, J. I., & Liu, N. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112844 · Cited by 3
“I’ve got ninety-nine problems…”: a starting point for investigating the risk prioritisation paradox
Nilson, F., & Wester, M. (2024) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2024.2420996 · Cited by 3
“An alternative view of the same concept is that socioeconomic status differentiates the individual’s ability or desire for delayed rewards, i.e. individuals with lower socioeconomic status are less willing to wait for rewards (Griskevicius et al. 2011).”
Analysing crab syndrome through the perspective of life history theory
Üzüm, B., Samancı, S., & Özkan, O. S. (2024) · South African Journal of Business Management · doi:10.4102/sajbm.v55i1.4592 · Cited by 3
Living with technological challenges: does socioeconomic status affect people’s health?
Xu, J., Xia, C., & Ding, X. (2025) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05662-2 · Cited by 4
Gavurová, B., Huculová, E., & Kováč, V. (2019) · Economics & Sociology · doi:10.14254/2071-789x.2019/12-2/17 · Cited by 3
“Also Griskevicius et al. (2011) research an influence of the economic indicators on the regional differences in mortality.”
BackgroundA silver lining of the epidemic: how contagious disease salience leads to minimalistic consumption
Chen, S., & Ran, Y. (2023) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-023-03646-7 · Cited by 3
“It was concluded with a statement that these trends reflected the reality of the future environment, which would be treacherous (Griskevicius et al., 2011).”
Sotero, M. (2020) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/7646064 · Cited by 3
Anicich, E. M. (2016) · doi:10.7916/d8w37wfc · Cited by 3
“…& Jehn (2011) Greer, Caruso, & Jehn (2011) Greer & van Kleef (2010) Greer & van Kleef (2010) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Griskevicius et al. (2011) Groysberg,…”
InfluentialThe Effects of Resources on Brand and Interpersonal Connection
Brick, D. J., Chartrand, T. L., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2016) · Journal of the Association for Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/688755 · Cited by 3
“…on their most important relationships over ones that are less important (e.g., attachment theory: Hazan and Shaver 1994; kin selection theory: Hamilton 1964; Brown and Taylor 2009; investment model theory: Rusbult 1980), choosing a task involving one relationship over another suggests a…”
BackgroundThe relationship between socioeconomic status and competitive sport anxiety in youth
Paulo, B. D. (2013) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 3
An Empirical Review on Psychological Effects of Inequality : Focused on Economic Inequality
Kim, Y., & Na, J. (2018) · 한국심리학회지: 일반 · doi:10.22257/kjp.2018.09.37.3.313 · Cited by 3
Gassen, J., Mengelkoch, S., Bradshaw, H. K., & Hill, S. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01263 · Cited by 3
How Childhood Adversity Shapes Susceptibility to COVID-19 Scams
Grillo, T. L. H., & Ward, A. F. (2020) · Journal of the Association for Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/711833 · Cited by 4
“abundance) are more averse to taking financial risks (Griskevicius et al. 2011; Amir et al. 2018) and less trusting of others (Mells et al.”
BackgroundFinancial scarcity undermines health across the globe and the life course.Preprint
Sommet, N., & Spini, D. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/zg6sr · Cited by 38
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Life-history strategy, adverse environment, and justification of life-ending decisions
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Felton, J. W., Kahn, G. D., Johnson, J. E., Ali, H., Saleh, S., Habib, N. G. M., Maher, B. S., Strickland, J. C., Cheong, J., Yi, R., et al. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425100886 · Cited by 2
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Research status of the periodic table: a bibliometric analysis
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“…also, e.g. ecology and evolutionary biology (Brown et al. 2018; Claireaux et al. 2018; Pesendorfer et al. 2019), psychology (Figueredo et al. 2006; Griskevicius et al. 2011; Sacco and Osipowicz 2012; Del Giudice 2014), anthropology (Kaplan et al. 2000), public health (Wells et al. 2017),…”
Song, X., Feng, N., Yang, Y., et al. (2024) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2024.2398572 · Cited by 2
Childhood adversity and health: The mediating roles of emotional expression and general trust
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Wu, H., Chang, Y. Y., & Chiou, W. (2025) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2025.2450351 · Cited by 2
Present-Focused Behavior as a Rational Adaptation to Precarity
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Meskó, N., Ehlers, J. S., & Zsido, A. N. (2025) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/14747049251339453 · Cited by 2
“…strategies possess a more present/short-term oriented attitude including opportunistic, impulsive, and self-bene fi cial behaviors, higher frequency of mating at a younger age, and little investment in social relationships or offspring (Ellis et al., 2009; Griskevicius et al., 2011b; Nettle, 2010).”
InfluentialJeffrey, A. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780198901846.001.0001 · Cited by 2
Cultural consonance, deprivation, and psychological responses for niche construction
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Liu, M., Morrin, M., & Chae, B. G. (2022) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2022.02.006 · Cited by 2
The Role of Androgens in Life History Theories of Attachment
Sankar, J. (2015) · Scholarship@Western (Western University) · Cited by 2
Does Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Predict Life-History Strategy in Japanese Adults?
Oda, R. (2017) · Letters on Evolutionary Behavioral Science · doi:10.5178/lebs.2017.62 · Cited by 2
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Pisula, W., Łukasik, A., Kawa, R., & Pisula, E. (2018) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2018.99132 · Cited by 2
“High mating effort strategy represents a fast life history, whereas the high somatic effort and parental effort strategy represents a slow life history (Figueredo, Cabeza de Baca, & Woodley, 2013; Griskevicius et al., 2011; Kirsner, Figueredo, & Jacobs, 2009) and is described as a bipolar continuum (Del Giudice & Bels…”
BackgroundTrzebiński, W., & Trzebiński, J. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10030379 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, the strength of these beliefs may change later as a result of exclusion from or inclusion into social groups [28], breakdown of long, intimate, and significant relationships [20,29], social anomie [30], and instability of social rules, high mortality, and poverty in macro-social environments [31,32].”
BackgroundCEO Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Corporate Social Responsibility
Kahhali, P. (2022) · American Journal of Management · doi:10.33423/ajm.v22i1.5222 · Cited by 2
Evolutionary Perspectives on Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Swanepoel, A., Reiss, M. J., Launer, J., Music, G., & Wren, B. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009030564.017 · Cited by 4
Mating-related stimuli induce rapid shifts in fathers' assessments of infants
Rilling, J. K., Gallagher, P., & Lee, M. (2023) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.06.006 · Cited by 2
Manson, J. H. (2018) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.4866 · Cited by 2
“For example, some findings indicate that low childhood socioeconomic status (cueing a faster LHS) interacts with mortality-risk primes to increase risk-proneness and reward delay discounting (Griskevicius et al., 2011; but see Pepper et al., 2017).”
BackgroundThe evolution of class-dependent reproductive effort in humans and other animalsPreprint
Rodrigues, A. M. M. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/449868 · Cited by 2
“Birth rate and class, by contrast, are inversely correlated, with working-class women giving birth at a higher rate than upper-class women (Griskevicius et al. 2011; Nettle 2010).”
BackgroundThe Rationality of Literal Tide Pod ConsumptionPreprint
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Consumer Disclosures on Social Media Platforms: A Global Investigation
Kolesnyk, D. (2021) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 2
Three Essays on the Impact of Cuteness on Consumer Behavior
Yim, A. (2021) · doi:10.33915/etd.8087 · Cited by 2
The effect of economic situation on time and risk preferences: Does financial literacy matter?Preprint
Adamkovic, M., Martončik, M., & Ropovik, I. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5vaud · Cited by 1
Advancing the Psychology of Social Class withLarge-Scale Replications in Four CountriesPreprint
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“Childhood harshness refers to the rates of mortality and morbidity, which are largely determined by the availability of survival resources, with childhood SES serving as a vital indicator (Belsky et al. 2012; Griskevicius et al. 2011; Maranges et al. 2022).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Delton, A. W., & Robertson, T. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of New Mexico (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Griskevicius, Vladas
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1015-1026
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- PMC
- PMC3298774
- OpenAlex
- W2172137497
- Semantic Scholar
- 926b6e5ff6f663ec9ac18e79730426d0a165d7ac
- Cited by
- 790
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 15.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0843764)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- risk preferences, delay discounting, life history theory, socioeconomic status, child poverty, resource constraints, risky decision making, evolutionary psychology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Arousal, Attitude to Death, Child, Cues, Decision Making, Female, Gambling, Humans, Individuality, Internal-External Control, Life Change Events, Life Expectancy, Male, Motivation, Personality Development, Poverty, Sex Factors, Social Class, Social Environment, Young Adult
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