Attempting to answer a meaningful question enhances subsequent learning even when feedback is delayed.
Abstract
Attempting to retrieve information from memory enhances subsequent learning even if the retrieval attempt is unsuccessful. Recent evidence suggests that this benefit materializes only if subsequent study occurs immediately after the retrieval attempt. Previous studies have prompted retrieval using a cue (e.g., whale-???) that has no intrinsic answer. Experiment 1 replicated prior word pair studies, but in Experiment 2, when participants learned meaningful trivia questions, testing enhanced learning even when subsequent study was delayed. Even in Experiment 3, when subsequent study was delayed by up to 24 hr, tests enhanced learning on a final test another 24 hr later. These findings may give comfort to educators who worry that asking a question or giving a test, on which students inevitably make mistakes, impairs learning if feedback is not immediate. They also suggest that there is a consensus in the literature thus far: Questions with rich semantic content enhance subsequent learning even when feedback is delayed, but less meaningful questions without an intrinsic answer enhance learning only when feedback is immediate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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Semantic elaboration benefits later retrieval by providing additional links between the cue and the target.
“Semantic elaboration could benefit later retrieval because it provides additional links between the cue and the target (Kornell, 2014; Pyc & Rawson, 2010, 2012).”
From Predicting as a learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Kornell, 2014
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“This approach has been successfully implemented in studies on pretesting that let learners answer questions well before the correct answers are revealed, such as in a text that learners have to read later on (Kornell, 2014; Richland et al., 2009).”
Background
- Authors
- Kornell, N.
- Affiliations
- Williams College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kornell, Nate
- ORCID
- Kornell, Nate
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 106-114
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2333568847
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 7
- FWCI
- 2.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- retrieval practice, testing effect, delayed feedback, trivia questions, word pair learning, semantic content, memory enhancement
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Association Learning, Cues, Feedback, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Mental Recall, Semantics, Vocabulary, Intention, Young Adult
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