Errors committed with high confidence are hypercorrected.
Abstract
The relation between people's confidence in the accuracy of an erroneous response and their later performance was investigated. Most models of human memory suggest that the higher a person's confidence, the stronger the item (in the context of the eliciting cue) that is retrieved from memory. In recall, stronger associates to a cue interfere with competing associates more than do weaker associates. This state of affairs implies that errors endorsed with high, rather than low, confidence should be more difficult to correct by learning the correct response feedback. In contrast to the authors' expectations, highly confident errors were the most likely to be corrected in a subsequent retest. Participants nearly always endorsed the correct response in cases in which both the correct response and the original erroneous response were generated at retest, suggesting that people possess a refined metacognitive ability to know what is correct and incorrect.
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Greater attention is given to feedback that does not match expectations.
“There is also evidence that greater attention is given to feedback that does not match expectations (e.g., Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001;Fazio & Marsh, 2009)”
From The benefit of generating errors during learning (2014) · cites this paper as Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001
The hypercorrection effect is due to corrective feedback being more surprising for high-confidence errors, and ensuing increased arousal facilitates encoding of the correct answer.
“The authors suggested that this effect is due to the corrective feedback being more surprising for high-confidence errors than for low-confidence errors, and that the ensuing increased arousal facilitates encoding of the correct answer.”
From Predicting as a learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001
The hypercorrection effect is the finding that erroneous responses committed with high confidence are more likely to be corrected than erroneous responses committed with low confidence.
“The hypercorrection effect refers to the finding that erroneous responses committed with high confidence are more likely to be corrected than erroneous responses committed with low confidence (Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001).”
From Predicting as a learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2001
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Kim, Y., Zepeda, C. D., & Butler, A. C. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09800-x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Facilitating transfer through incorrect examples and explanatory feedback
Corral, D., & Carpenter, S. K. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820909454 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
On Teaching Old Dogs New Tricks
Metcalfe, J., Casal-Roscum, L., Radin, A. S., & Friedman, D. (2015) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615597912 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of unsuccessful retrieval on children’s subsequent learning
Carneiro, P., Lapa, A., & Finn, B. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.010 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Tip-of-the-tongue states predict enhanced feedback processing and subsequent memory.
Bloom, P., Friedman, D., Xu, J., Vuorre, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2018) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.05.010 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationEfklides, A. (2012) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.01.001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Knowing-it-all but still learning: Perceptions of one’s own knowledge and belief revision.
Hagá, S., & Olson, K. R. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000433 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Aha! moments correspond to metacognitive prediction errors
Dubey, R., Ho, M. K., Mehta, H., & Griffiths, T. L. (2026) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2026.106537 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Reconsolidation from negative emotional pictures: Is successful retrieval required?
Finn, B., Roediger, H. L., III, & Rosenzweig, E. Q. (2012) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0203-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Carpenter, S. K., & Vul, E. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0092-1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Eye Tracking the Feedback Assigned to Undergraduate Students in a Digital Assessment Game
Cutumisu, M., Turgeon, K.-L., Saiyera, T., Chuong, S., Esparza, L. M. G., MacDonald, R., & Kokhan, V. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01931 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Curiosity and the desire for agency: wait, wait … don’t tell me!
Metcalfe, J., Kennedy-Pyers, T., & Vuorre, M. (2021) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-021-00330-0 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationRindal, E. J., DeFranco, R., Rich, P. R., & Zaragoza, M. S. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000265 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The hypercorrection effect in younger and older adults
Eich, T. S., Stern, Y., & Metcalfe, J. (2012) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2012.754399 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citation[Substernal goiters. 218 operated cases].
Cougard, P., Matet, P., Goudet, P., Bambili, R., Viard, H., Vaillant, G., Vergès, B. L., & Brun, J. M. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Learning from your mistakes: does it matter if you’re out in left foot, I mean field?
Cyr, A.-A., & Anderson, N. D. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1464189 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Selective effects of errorful generation on recognition memory: the role of motivation and surprise
Seabrooke, T., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., Waters, J. L., & Hollins, T. J. (2019) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2019.1647247 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections?
Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R., & Zaragoza, M. S. (2020) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2020.1752731 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Learning from errors versus explicit instruction in preparation for a test that counts
Metcalfe, J., Xu, J., Vuorre, M., Siegler, R. S., Wiliam, D., & Bjork, R. A. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12651 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding Test Takers' Choices in a Self-Adapted Test: A Hidden Markov Modeling of Process Data
Arieli‐Attali, M., Ou, L., & Simmering, V. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00083 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Butterfield, B., & Metcalfe, J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- ORCID
- Metcalfe, Janet
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1491-1494
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2003949574
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 0.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH8066)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- metacognition, memory confidence, memory errors, error correction, metacognitive confidence, retrieval interference, associative strength, metacognitive accuracy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Knowledge of Results, Psychological, Learning, Male, Memory, Self-Assessment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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