Prequestioning and Pretesting Effects: a Review of Empirical Research, Theoretical Perspectives, and Implications for Educational Practice
Open accessAbstract
Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Pretesting enhances subsequent learning by activating prior knowledge, revealing knowledge gaps, and sharpening attention to critical information encountered later.
“a substantial body of research demonstrates that pretesting enhances subsequent learning by activating prior knowledge, revealing knowledge gaps, and sharpening attention to critical information encountered later [2, 9, 11-13].”
From Do Gains from Generative AI-Enabled Adaptive Pretesting Persist? Evidence from a Retention Study (2026) · cites this paper as [11]
The section on pre-instruction testing with text, video, and lecture materials (page not provided) reports that pretesting can direct attention to relevant information and may highlight what learners do and do not know. The review also says pretesting can often enhance learning, but it does not establish activation of prior knowledge as the mechanism, and it presents the attention and knowledge-gap explanations as suggestions rather than settled causes. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredControlled laboratory studies have produced abundant evidence of the benefits of prequestions for learning and memory.
“Controlled laboratory studies have produced abundant evidence of the bene fi ts of prequestions for learning and memory (Pan & Carpenter, 2023; St. Hilaire et al., 2024), but studies conducted in authentic education environments have produced scant and inconsistent evidence of such bene fi ts.”
From ManyClasses 2: The effects of prequestions on media interactions and learning. (2026) · cites this paper as Pan & Carpenter, 2023
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Assessment and Classroom Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050102 · Cited by 8,152 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Currently, pre-instruction testing is commonly implemented for the purposes of formative assessment (for a review, see Black & Wiliam, 1998), wherein instructors and students use such testing to help guide future teaching activities and study behaviors, respectively.”
BackgroundA spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.407 · Cited by 8,141 · see citing works
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 · Cited by 3,138 · see citing works
When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer
Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612 · Cited by 2,076 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Research in the literature involving transfer of learning to new scenarios, situations, and other contexts (for related taxonomies of transfer, see Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Pan & Rickard, 2018) is currently in its infancy.”
BackgroundThe power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x · Cited by 2,037 · see citing works
The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention
Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003 · Cited by 1,796 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Taking practice tests on information that has already been learned helps consolidate knowledge and increases its future accessibility (Bjork, 1975; Roediger & Butler, 2011).”
BackgroundFormative assessment: a critical review
Bennett, R. E. (2011) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2010.513678 · Cited by 1,498 · see citing works
Self-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823 · Cited by 1,468 · see citing works
Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions
Kraft, M. A. (2020) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x20912798 · Cited by 1,281 · see citing works
The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect.
Rowland, C. A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037559 · Cited by 1,066 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…is well-established as a potent enhancer of learning for a plethora of materials across a wide array of educationally relevant circumstances (for reviews, see Carpenter, 2012; Carpenter et al., 2022; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Pan & Rickard, 2018; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Rowland, 2014, and others).”
BackgroundKapur, M. (2008) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000802212669 · Cited by 867 · see citing works
Schwartz, D. L., & Martin, T. (2004) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2202_1 · Cited by 763 · see citing works
Designing for Productive Failure
Kapur, M., & Bielaczyc, K. (2012) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.591717 · Cited by 674 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Studies of productive failure have been conducted primarily in the domains of mathematics, physical sciences, and medicine and, unlike most studies of pre-instruction testing, often involve group activities (e.g., Kapur & Bielaczyc, 2012).”
BackgroundMetcalfe, J. (2016) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044022 · Cited by 548 · see citing works
Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning.
Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015729 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., Oppezzo, M., & Chin, D. B. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025140 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
On Asking People Questions about What They are Reading
Anderson, R. C., & Biddle, W. B. (1975) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60269-8 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Why Testing Improves Memory: Mediator Effectiveness Hypothesis
Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1191465 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
McDaniel, M. A., Agarwal, P. K., Huelser, B. J., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021782 · Cited by 360 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…situations, including elementary school students learning about space exploration (de Lima & Jaeger, 2020), middle school students learning science (McDaniel et al., 2011), undergraduate students learning psychology (Carpenter et al., 2018; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2023) and chemical engineering…”
BackgroundResultThe Concept of Formative Assessment
Boston, C. (2020) · ScholarWorks@UMassAmherst (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/kmcq-dj31 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Formative assessment: What do teachers need to know and do?
Heritage, M. (2007) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/003172170708900210 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Rothkopf, E. Z. (1966) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312003004241 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
The pretesting effect: do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning?
Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/a0016496 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Text-signaling devices and their effects on reading and memory processes
Lorch, R. F. (1989) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01320135 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Transfer of test- enhanced learning: meta-analytic review and synthesis
Pan, S. C., & Rickard, T. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000151 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effects of Adjunct Questions on Prose Learning
Hamaker, C. (1986) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543056002212 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Carpenter, S. K. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0024140 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Self-citationTesting Enhances the Transfer of Learning
Carpenter, S. K. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412452728 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationSelective facilitative effects of interspersed questions on learning from written materials.
Rothkopf, E. Z., & Bisbicos, E. E. (1967) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024117 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Errors committed with high confidence are hypercorrected.
Butterfield, B., & Metcalfe, J. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.6.1491 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Test-potentiated learning: Distinguishing between direct and indirect effects of tests.
Arnold, K. M., & McDermott, K. B. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0029199 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Retrieval practice enhances new learning: the forward effect of testing
Pastötter, B., & Bäuml, K. T. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00286 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure
Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543211019105 · Cited by 212 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Explanations of productive failure effects include scaffolding via the activation of relevant knowledge, attention being focused on critical problem features, and high-lighting knowledge gaps (Loibl & Rummel, 2014; Sinha & Kapur, 2021).”
BackgroundWhen and why do retrieval attempts enhance subsequent encoding?
Grimaldi, P. J., & Karpicke, J. D. (2012) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0174-0 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Hartley, J., & Davies, I. K. (1976) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543046002239 · Cited by 192 · cited 2× · see citing works
“If so, that would constitute a specific benefit of prior testing wherein only the learning of directly tested materials is enhanced ( Carpenter et al., 2023; see also Anderson & Biddle, 1975; Hartley & Davies, 1976) .”
BackgroundAN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HUMAN CURIOSITY
Berlyne, D. E. (1954) · British Journal of Psychology General Section · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01253.x · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Knowing what you don't know makes failure productive
Loibl, K., & Rummel, N. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.08.004 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…is well-established as a potent enhancer of learning for a plethora of materials across a wide array of educationally relevant circumstances (for reviews, see Carpenter, 2012; Carpenter et al., 2022; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Pan & Rickard, 2018; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Rowland, 2014, and others).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMaking related errors facilitates learning, but learners do not know it
Huelser, B. J., & Metcalfe, J. (2012) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0167-z · Cited by 171 · see citing works
The benefit of generating errors during learning
Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0033194 · Cited by 166 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…make predictions about the likelihood of future recall (i.e., judgments of learning or JOLs) of word pairs that were pretested or read, participants tend to give lower predictions to pretested pairs (e.g., Pan & Rivers, 2023; Potts & Shanks, 2014; Yang et al., 2017; Zawadzka & Hanczakowski, 2019).”
BackgroundKirk-Johnson, A., Galla, B. M., & Fraundorf, S. H. (2019) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.101237 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Remembering change: The critical role of recursive remindings in proactive effects of memory
Wahlheim, C. N., & Jacoby, L. L. (2012) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0246-9 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Retrieval potentiates new learning: A theoretical and meta-analytic review.
Chan, J. C. K., Meissner, C. A., & Davis, S. D. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000166 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Adjunct Postquestions in Text: A Critical Review of Methods and Processes
Rickards, J. P. (1979) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543049002181 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Learning from productive failure
Kapur, M. (2015) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2015.1002195 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Effect of question location, pacing, and mode upon retention of prose material.
Frase, L. T. (1968) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025947 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: a review of the forward testing effect
Yang, C., Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2018) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-018-0024-y · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Izawa, C. (1970) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0028541 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
When and why a failed test potentiates the effectiveness of subsequent study.
Hays, M. J., Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028468 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
A Framework for the Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Adjunct Questions and Objectives
Hamilton, R. J. (1985) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543055001047 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Neural correlates of error detection and correction in a semantic retrieval task
Butterfield, B., & Mangels, J. A. (2003) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(03)00203-9 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
How Retrieval Attempts Affect Learning
Kornell, N., & Vaughn, K. E. (2016) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2016.03.003 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Retrieval attempts enhance learning, but retrieval success (versus failure) does not matter.
Kornell, N., Klein, P. J., & Rawson, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0037850 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Kornell, N. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0033699 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The effect of prequestions on learning from video presentations.
Carpenter, S. K., & Toftness, A. R. (2017) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.014 · Cited by 87 · cited 8× · see citing works
“…St. Hilaire and Carpenter (2020), and Toftness et al. (2018) observed no benefits of pre-instruction testing for untested materials presented in videos, Carpenter and Toftness (2017), Pan et al., (2020a, 2020b, experiment 2), and Sana and Carpenter (2023, experiment 1) did observe such benefits.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationPan, S. C., & Sana, F. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000345 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationJacoby, L. L., & Wahlheim, C. N. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0298-5 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The benefit of generating errors during learning: What is the locus of the effect?
Potts, R., Davies, G., & Shanks, D. R. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000637 · Cited by 75 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…illustrated in Table 1, studies involving paired or triple associate words (e.g., Kornell et al., 2009; Pan et al., 2019; Yan et al., 2014; see also Potts et al., 2019), trivia facts (e.g., Kor-nell, 2014), and text passages (e.g., Kliegl et al., 2022; Little & Bjork, 2016) have all shown memory…”
BackgroundResultKnight, J. B., Ball, B. H., Brewer, G. A., Dewitt, M. R., & Marsh, R. L. (2012) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.12.008 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Multiple-choice pretesting potentiates learning of related information
Little, J. L., & Bjork, E. L. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0621-z · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Yang, C., Potts, R. B., & Shanks, D. R. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000363 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
What happens when university students try to answer prequestions that accompany textbook material
Pressley, M., Tanenbaum, R., McDaniel, M. A., & Wood, E. (1990) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/0361-476x(90)90003-j · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Rickards, J. P. (1976) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.68.2.210 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Pretesting reduces mind wandering and enhances learning during online lectures.
Pan, S. C., Schmitt, A. G., Bjork, E. L., & Sana, F. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.07.004 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationDoes incorrect guessing impair fact learning?
Kang, S. H. K., Pashler, H., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Carpenter, S. K., & Mozer, M. C. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021977 · Cited by 67 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The prediction error account suggests that the discrepancy between an erroneous response and subsequent correct answer feedback triggers an error signal, which in turn enhances attention and subsequent learning (Kang et al., 2011; Metcalfe, 2017; see also Brod, 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLearning from errors: Students' and instructors' practices, attitudes, and beliefs
Pan, S. C., Sana, F., Samani, J., Cooke, J., & Kim, J. A. (2020) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2020.1815790 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationA dual memory theory of the testing effect
Rickard, T. C., & Pan, S. C. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1298-4 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationReward Prediction Error and Declarative Memory
Ergo, K., Loof, E. D., & Verguts, T. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.02.009 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
When is guessing incorrectly better than studying for enhancing memory?
Vaughn, K. E., & Rawson, K. A. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0276-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Janelli, M., & Lipnevich, A. A. (2021) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104076 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Mera, Y., Rodrı́guez, G., & Marin-Garcia, E. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02022-8 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Does pre-testing promote better retention than post-testing?
Latimier, A., Riegert, A., Peyre, H., Ly, S. T., Casati, R., & Ramus, F. (2019) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-019-0053-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The effect of pre-testing on post-test performance
Hartley, J. R. (1973) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00139871 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Predicting as a learning strategy
Brod, G. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01904-1 · Cited by 52 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The prediction error account suggests that the discrepancy between an erroneous response and subsequent correct answer feedback triggers an error signal, which in turn enhances attention and subsequent learning (Kang et al., 2011; Metcalfe, 2017; see also Brod, 2021).”
BackgroundOptimizing the Efficacy of Learning Objectives through Pretests
Sana, F., Forrin, N. D., Sharma, M., Dubljevic, T., Ho, P., Jalil, E., & Kim, J. A. (2020) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.19-11-0257 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The role of mediator strength in learning from retrieval
Carpenter, S. K., & Yeung, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.008 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of prequestions on classroom learning.
Carpenter, S. K., Rahman, S., & Perkins, K. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000145 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationChin, D. B., Chi, M., & Schwartz, D. L. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9374-0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Yang, J., Zhang, Y., Pi, Z., & Xie, Y. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102055 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Carver, R. P. (1971) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862967109546983 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Encoding Variability and Cuing in Generative Processing
Soraci, S. A., Carlin, M. T., Chechile, R. A., Franks, J. J., Wills, T. W., & Watanabe, T. (1999) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1999.2661 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Learning from failure: Errorful generation improves memory for items, not associations
Seabrooke, T., Hollins, T. J., Kent, C. D., Wills, A. J., & Mitchell, C. J. (2018) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.001 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Learning from errors is attributable to episodic recollection rather than semantic mediation
Metcalfe, J., & Huelser, B. J. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107296 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Prereading Questions and Online Text Comprehension
Lewis, M. R., & Mensink, M. C. (2012) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2012.662801 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Why does guessing incorrectly enhance, rather than impair, retention?
Yan, V. X., Yu, Y., Garcia, M. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0454-6 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Prequestions do not enhance the benefits of retrieval in a STEM classroom
Geller, J., Carpenter, S. K., Lamm, M. H., Rahman, S., Armstrong, P. I., & Coffman, C. R. (2017) · Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-017-0078-z · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationRoelle, J., Endres, T., Abel, R., Obergassel, N., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09810-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The limited effects of prequestions on learning from authentic lecture videos
Toftness, A. R., Carpenter, S. K., Lauber, S., & Mickes, L. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.06.003 · Cited by 34 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Whereas James and Storm (2019, experiment 5), Pan et al., (2020a, 2020b, experiment 1), St. Hilaire and Carpenter (2020), and Toftness et al. (2018) observed no benefits of pre-instruction testing for untested materials presented in videos, Carpenter and Toftness (2017), Pan et al., (2020a, 2020b,…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTwo routes to memory benefits of guessing.
Zawadzka, K., & Hanczakowski, M. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000676 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The Role of Questions in Maintaining Attention to Textual Material
Bull, S. G. (1973) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543043001083 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Prequestions enhance learning, but only when they are remembered.
Hilaire, K. J. S., & Carpenter, S. K. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000296 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationMetacognitive awareness of the pretesting effect improves with self-regulation support
Pan, S. C., & Rivers, M. L. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-022-01392-1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationCarpenter, S. K., Sachs, R. E., Martin, B., Schmidt, K., & Looft, R. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0185-7 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationBeyond the pretesting effect: What happens to the information that is not pretested?
James, K. K., & Storm, B. C. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000231 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Combining Retrieval Practice with Elaborative Encoding: Complementary or Redundant?
McDaniel, M. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09784-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The effect of unsuccessful retrieval on children’s subsequent learning
Carneiro, P., Lapa, A., & Finn, B. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.010 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Main Idea Prequestions as Adjunct Aids with Good and Low-Average Middle Grade Readers
Memory, D. M. (1983) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862968309547482 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The effects of prequestions versus postquestions on memory retention in children.
de Lima, N. K., & Jaeger, A. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.08.005 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Type of Verbatim Question Interspersed in Text: A New Look at the Position Effect
Rickards, J. P. (1976) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862967609547164 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
When pretesting fails to enhance learning concepts from reading texts.
Hausman, H., & Rhodes, M. G. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000160 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Gustafson, H. W., & Toole, D. L. (1970) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1970.11011231 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Conditions of highly specific learning through cued recall
Pan, S. C., Lovelett, J. T., Stoeckenius, D., & Rickard, T. C. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01593-x · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationHilaire, K. J. S., Carpenter, S. K., & Jennings, J. M. (2019) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2019.1641209 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationSelective effects of errorful generation on recognition memory: the role of motivation and surprise
Seabrooke, T., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., Waters, J. L., & Hollins, T. J. (2019) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2019.1647247 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Welhaf, M. S., Phillips, N. E., Smeekens, B. A., Miyake, A., & Kane, M. J. (2022) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00372-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Pretesting boosts recognition, but not cued recall, of targets from unrelated word pairs
Seabrooke, T., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., & Hollins, T. J. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01810-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Retrieval attempts enhance learning regardless of time spent trying to retrieve
Vaughn, K. E., Hausman, H., & Kornell, N. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1170152 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The benefits of impossible tests: Assessing the role of error-correction in the pretesting effect
Seabrooke, T., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., Inkster, A. B., & Hollins, T. J. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01218-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Improving conceptual learning via pretests.
Sana, F., Yan, V. X., Clark, C. M., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000322 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Broader benefits of the pretesting effect: Placement matters
Sana, F., & Carpenter, S. K. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02274-6 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationGuessing as a learning intervention: A meta-analytic review of the prequestion effect
Hilaire, K. J. S., Chan, J. C. K., & Ahn, D. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02353-8 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Wang, L., & Yang, J. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120001 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Pretesting Enhances Learning in the Classroom
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, E. L. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09805-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Pre-Testing as a Method of Conveying Learning Objectives
Beckman, W. S. (2008) · The Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and Research · doi:10.15394/jaaer.2008.1447 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The effect of post-test relevant pre-tests and discussion-type feedback on learning and retention
Samuels, S. J. (1969) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03336620 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Heterogeneity and Publication Bias in Research on Test-Potentiated New Learning
Boustani, S., & Shanks, D. R. (2022) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.31996 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The pretesting effect comes to full fruition after prolonged retention interval.
Kliegl, O., Bartl, J., & Bäuml, K. T. (2022) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/mac0000085 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A little can go a long way: giving learners some context can enhance the benefits of pretesting
Overoye, A. L., James, K. K., & Storm, B. C. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1974048 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Mastery versus invention learning: impacts on future learning of simulated procedural skills
Brydges, R., Fiume, A., & Grierson, L. (2022) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-022-10094-x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Willis, R. E., Erwin, D. Z., & Fayette, A. (2019) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2019.07.022 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
You won’t guess that: On the limited benefits of guessing when learning a foreign language
Butowska, E., Hanczakowski, M., & Zawadzka, K. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01254-2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pretesting can be beneficial even when using the internet to answer questions
Storm, B. C., James, K. K., & Stone, S. M. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2020.1863990 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Guessing can benefit memory for related word pairs even when feedback is delayed
Zawadzka, K., Zaborowska, O., Butowska, E., Piątkowski, K., & Hanczakowski, M. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-022-01385-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Can pretesting with multiple-choice questions facilitate learning?
Little, J. L., & Bjork, E. L. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e520592012-602 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Additive Effects From Interspersed Adjunct Questions In Prose Text.
Sagaria, S. D., & Vesta, F. J. D. (1977) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Brod, G. (2021). Predicting as a learning strategy. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3758/ s13423-021-01904-1 · DOI · Paper page
- Carpenter, S. K., King-Shepard, Q., & Nokes-Malach, T. (2023). The prequestion effect: Why it is useful to ask students questions before they learn. In In their own words: What scholars want you to know about why and how to apply the science of learning in your academic setting (pp. 74-82). Division 2 American Psychological Association.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Emerging and Future Directions in Test-Enhanced Learning Research
Pan, S. C., Dunlosky, J., Xu, K. M., & Ouwehand, K. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09857-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationPi, Z., Yang, Y., Zhao, X., Guo, Q., & Li, X. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105110 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Asher, M. W., Hartman, J. D., Blaser, M., Eichler, J. F., & Carvalho, P. F. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105387 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Peykar, S., Vahedparast, H., Gharibi, T., & Bagherzadeh, R. (2023) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-023-01634-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Rana, T., Konapur, A., Mishra, P., Kour, M., Rao, A., Arora, M., & Gavaravarapu, S. M. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23940-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Is anybody watching: A multi-factor motivational framework for educational video engagement
Parker, M. J., Bunch, M., & Pike, A. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105148 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Pan, S. C., Yu, L., Wong, M. J., Selvarajan, G., & Teo, A. Z. J. (2025) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2025.104608 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationPrediction versus production for teaching computer programming
Tucker, M. C., Wang, X., Son, J. Y., & Stigler, J. W. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101871 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pretesting effects on incidental L2 vocabulary learning through reading
Puimège, E., Caltabellotta, E., & Peters, E. (2025) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263125100910 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Murray, E., Horner, A. J., & Göbel, S. M. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10035-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Using Prequestioning as a Hands-On Activity to Support Undergraduate Student Learning
Pan, S. C., Han, J. Y., & Fung, F. M. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c01405 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationCarpenter, S. K., & Sanchez, C. A. (2025) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-025-00693-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationRe-Experiencing vs. Self-Explaining: Comparing Generative Learning Activities in VR
Stenberdt, V. A., Shiwalia, B. M., & Makransky, G. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10096-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Asher, M. W., & Carvalho, P. F. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10103-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Erring on the side of caution: Two failures to replicate the derring effect.
Mera, Y., Modirrousta-Galian, A., Thomas, G., Higham, P. A., & Seabrooke, T. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001707 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Training interpreters about investigative interview techniques: evaluation of an online course
Hale, S. B., Martschuk, N., Lim, J., Goodman‐Delahunty, J., & Brandon, S. E. (2025) · The Interpreter and Translator Trainer · doi:10.1080/1750399x.2025.2506259 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Practice with Feedback vs. Lecture: Consequences for Learning, Efficiency, and MotivationPreprint
Asher, M. W., Sana, F., Koedinger, K. R., & Carvalho, P. F. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/kft8u · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Effect of Prequestions on Learning: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis
King-Shepard, Q. W., Walker, J., Nokes-Malach, T. J., Carpenter, S. K., & Fraundorf, S. H. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10075-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationProfiling sustainable visitors to boost sustainable tourism in Spain
Longo-Sarachaga, J., & Márquez, M. D. C. P. (2025) · Discover Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43621-025-01433-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Şimşek, A. C., Anders, G., Göth, J., Specht, L., & Huff, M. (2025) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100512 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lu, X., Ju, K. P., Dudley, M., Sano, L., & Wang, X. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791121 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Karpicke, J. D. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15754-7.00074-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
ManyClasses 2: The effects of prequestions on media interactions and learning.
Motz, B. A., Chinni, A., de Leeuw, J. R., Jankowski, H. E., Aggarwal, A., Amato, M., Berlin, K., Britten, K., Brown, A., Cerchiaro, M. L., et al. (2026) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000978 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Interpolated pretesting can boost memory of related and distinct prose materials
Kliegl, O., & Bäuml, K. T. (2024) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-024-02042-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The pretesting effect under divided attention
Bartl, J., Kliegl, O., & Bäuml, K. T. (2025) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-025-02106-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Optimizing the Learning Process in Higher Education: The Six Pillars of Learning
Thurn, C., & Daguati, S. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Hochschulentwicklung · doi:10.21240/zfhe/20-1/05 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Prequestioning with feedback fosters learning in young children
Yu, L., Heng, J. T., Arden-Gardner, L. S., Ding, X. P., & Pan, S. C. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102187 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationScheidig, F., & Obergassel, N. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-025-01339-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Do Gains from Generative AI–Enabled Adaptive Pretesting Persist? Evidence from a Retention Study
Akgün, M., & Toker, Ş. (2026) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-29788-4_49 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Do Gains from Generative AI-Enabled Adaptive Pretesting Persist? Evidence from a Retention Study
Akgun, M., & Toker, S. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2606.22328
“Although learners typically perform poorly on such initial attempts, a substantial body of research demonstrates that pretesting enhances subsequent learning by activating prior knowledge, revealing knowledge gaps, and sharpening attention to critical information encountered later [2, 9, 11–13].”
Pan, S. C., Dunlosky, J. T., Xu, K. M., & Ouwehand, K. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gs5yr
Self-citationSchmitterer, A. M. A., Viertel, F. E., & Theobald, M. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/6d8mp
Cahyo, P. W., Aesyi, U. S., & Asnawi, C. (2024) · KACANEGARA Jurnal Pengabdian pada Masyarakat · doi:10.28989/kacanegara.v7i2.1930
ManyClasses 2: The Effects of Prequestions on Media Interactions and LearningPreprint
Motz, B. A., Chinni, A., de Leeuw, J. R., Jankowski, H. E., Aggarwal, A., Amato, M., Berlin, K. L., Britten, K., Brown, A., Cerchiaro, M. L., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3xbma
Rohmawati, W., Sutopo, S., Waldrip, B. G., Kurnaz, M. A., & Levy, S. T. (2024) · Classroom Experiences · doi:10.59535/care.v2i2.323
Pretesting Promotes Learning but Not Generalisation from Moral Stories in Young ChildrenPreprint
Hsien, F. J., Yu, L., Pan, S. C., & Ding, X. P. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gdvsb_v1
Self-citationFoo, Yu, Pan, and Ding (2025) Pretesting Promotes Learning from Moral StoriesPreprint
Hsien, F. J., Yu, L., Pan, S. C., & Ding, X. P. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gdvsb_v2
Self-citationTaunan, R. J., & Espiritu, M. (2025) · Psychology and Education A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.70838/pemj.380104
Oro, C. P., Narsico, P. G., Napoles, J., & Reyes, H. L. S. (2025) · International Journal of Multidisciplinary Applied Business and Education Research · doi:10.11594/ijmaber.06.07.09
Christiane, J. F., Meythi, M., Martusa, R., Agustina, L., & Yapinus, P. P. (2025) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Economy · doi:10.31435/ijite.3(51).2025.3431
Practice testing enhances learning but not attitude change from persuasive texts
Weber, E. M. G., Lehnen, L., Lombardi, D., & Brod, G. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-20874-1
Engstler, V., & Marohn, A. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5c00761
Duay, B. S., & Ignacio, R. (2025) · International Journal on Culture History and Religion · doi:10.63931/ijchr.v7isi2.73
Pretesting effects for facts reflect lexical over semantic or structural features
Pan, S. C., & Siauw, F. A. (2026) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01823-9
Self-citationDuolingo-inspired pretesting with words and pictures improves vocabulary learning
Chua, T. J. E., & Pan, S. C. (2026) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-026-00708-y
Self-citationKliegl, O. (2026) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000750
Binks, S., Brydges, R., Woods, N. N., Coleman, J., Jeyabalan, V., & Kulasegaram, K. (2026) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-026-02677-9
Generative Processing Strengthens Learning Across Errorful and Non-Errorful Contexts
Khin, T. H. K., & Pan, S. C. (2026) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2026.2636103
Self-citationCate, J. A., Jordan, K., Sanson, M., Taylor, A., & Garry, M. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2653722
Asher, M. W., Wei, Y., Reynolds, A., Ogan, A., & Carvalho, P. F. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791885
Dong, R., Indrajaya, A., Yin, L., & Pan, S. C. (2026) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70200
Self-citationShao, A., & Scheufele, D. A. (2026) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2026.2669539 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wang, A., Brysbaert, M., & Günther, F. (2026) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-026-03051-8
Reward System Strategy on Learners’ Academic Performance in English
Tudtud, J. S., & Ferenal, E. S. (2026) · European Modern Studies Journal · doi:10.59573/emsj.10(2).2026.11
Testing as a learning tool in special education
Tempel, T., & Häberle, T. (2026) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2026.2684581
Asher, M. W., Gold, G., & Carvalho, P. F. (2026) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/3774398.3811598
Effects of the question wait time and question positions on scientific concept learning from video
Wang, H., Xue, Z., Zhang, Y., & Hu, W. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-14094-x
Kuo, L.-H., Chang, C.-H., Huang, C., Huang, S.-F., Huang, K., & Guo, J. (2026) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2026.2733869
Cueva, E. J. H., Merino, E. M. O., Namcela, W. D. R., & González, J. R. E. (2026) · Revista Interdisciplinaria de Ciencias de la Educación Salud y Sociología (RICESO) · doi:10.66136/bekryb54
The Development and Gaps of Integrating Climate Change Education with STEAM Education
Cheuk, S. H., Chu, J. C. K., Chan, Y. F., & Chang, M. H. J. (2026) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-026-04305-2
Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Hwang, G., Yang, S., Zhang, J., & Tu, Y. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-14165-z
Hu, Q., Jähnichen, T., Martínez‐Aviñó, A., Kong, V. A., & Fung, F. M. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6c00694
- Authors
- Pan, S. C., & Carpenter, S. K.
- Affiliations
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Oregon State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pan, Steven C.
- Venue
- Educational Psychology Review
- Published
- 2023-09-25
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-336X
- OpenAlex
- W4387023634
- Cited by
- 60
- References
- 125
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 9.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- James S. McDonnell Foundation (220020483))
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, National University of Singapore
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- pretesting effect, retrieval practice, memory enhancement, transfer of learning, classroom assessment, teaching practice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
