A note on socially desirable responding.
Abstract
Socially desirable responding is a construct that has been included in many studies in counseling psychology, however many of these applications are dated and out of agreement with more current research. This article includes a brief review of the extensive research in socially desirable responding. The questions addressed are (a) what is socially desirable responding and (b) how is it manifest in social desirability scales with respect to bias and substantive variance? Prominent examples of how social desirability is used in counseling research are included along with comments regarding how these applications can be improved. Finally there are recommendations made regarding the incorporation of socially desirable responding in counseling psychology research.
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The self-report nature of the surveys introduces the possibility of socially desirable responding, which was not measured in this study.
“First, the self-report nature of the surveys introduces the possibility of socially desirable responding (SDR). SDR was not measured in our study; however, a recent article demonstrated that SDR is not always a problem (Tracey, 2016).”
From The development and evaluation of a brief form of the Normative Male Alexithymia Scale (NMAS-BF). (2019) · cites this paper as Tracey, 2016
The included self-report measures are vulnerable to social desirability bias, although this may be less of an issue within a fully remote RCT.
“Similarly, the included self-report measures are vulnerable to social desirability bias, although this may be less of an issue within a fully remote RCT [124].”
From Testing the efficacy of a multicomponent, self-guided, smartphone-based meditation app: Three-armed randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [124]
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Controlling social desirability bias
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“Instead of implicitly assuming the SDB controls are necessary, Tracey (2016) argued that researchers should justify why SDB controls would improve research findings.”
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“Similarly, the included self-report measures are vulnerable to social desirability bias, although this may be less of an issue within a fully remote RCT [124].”
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“Following Tracey (2015), regressions were computed with and without controlling for social desirability to test whether there was an effect of social desirability on key variables.”
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“Moreover, it has been argued that the likelihood of self-report biasing is small, and the widespread use of bias indicators is unwarranted (McGrath, Mitchell, Kim, & Hough, 2010; Tracey, 2015).”
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“Finally, the lack of a correlation between the AMIVAW scores and social desirability supports discriminate validity, as Peters (2008) suggested (see also Tracey, 2016).”
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“Some have, however, questioned the use of SDRS measures such as the MCSDS (see e.g. Tracey, 2016) due to a controversy over the scale's content and dimensionality (Barger, 2002; Fischer & Fick, 1993; Helmes & Holden, 2003; Leite and Beretvas, 2005; Loo & Thorpe, 2000; McCrae & Costa, 1983; Paulhus,…”
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“One of the most vigorous controversies around self-report assessment has been concerning social desirability bias (SDB), or the widespread tendency of individuals to present themselves most favorably with respect to social values and norms (Tracey, 2016).”
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“Either way, those who try to get accurate information are thwarted by social desirability [31].”
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“Finally, the results may have been influenced by social desirability bias [61] and so this was taken into account during the interview, for example, by actively asking about negative effects.”
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“Despite these provisional measures, social desirability bias cannot be completely ruled out [106].”
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“One hypothesis is that the ‘over-reporting’ we see could be due to social desirability (Tracey 2016; Henderson et al. 2012), where the social factors of BAP in mothers makes them more susceptible to giving answers that they think the clinician wants to hear, as compared to mothers without BAP.”
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“Consequently, researchers have been urged to consider the application of multidimensional measures of SDR in their research (Tracey, 2016).”
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“The literature shows that this type of bias is a confounding factor that can result in the overestimation of data on subjective, self-administered instruments (Tracey, 2016; Adams et al., 2005; Mondal and Mondal, 2018).”
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Levant, R. F., & Parent, M. C. (2019) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000312 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“SDR was not measured in our study; however, a recent article demonstrated that SDR is not always a problem (Tracey, 2016).”
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“As can be the case in general self-reports, results could be influenced by social desirability responding, although this is not necessarily always something negative [60].”
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“Implementing a social desirability response scale to adjust for bias (Tracey, 2016) may, in part, tackle concerns about data manipulation.”
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“Individual differences in social desirability was not measured in our study; however, a recent article demonstrated that concerns about social desirability may be unnecessary (Tracey, 2016).”
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“1 3 With respect to experience-sampling approaches, one major shortcoming lies in the fact that reporting one’s own experience during a meditation exercise is still based on selfreports (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 2014), which can lead to common biases (e.g., social desirability; Tracey, 2016).”
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“Furthermore, there is evidence that dimensions of social desirability share substantive variance with White racial attitudes, empathy, and other measures of psychological health (Chao, Wei, Spanierman, Longo, & Northart, 2015; Gravdal & Sandal, 2006; Tracey, 2016; Uziel, 2010).”
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“In addition, because steps were taken to ensure participants remained anonymous and there no were consequences for responses to the questionnaires, self-deceptive enhancement was included in the correlation analyses to see whether it was associated with any of the outcome variables (Tracey, 2016).”
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“On the contrary, inaccuracy due to motivated distortion is described as an intentional report of incorrect data, often based on a social desirability bias that prompts individuals to change a response before communicating it, in order to project an inaccurate image of academic performance (Tracey, 2016).”
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“SDR was not measured in our study; however, a recent article demonstrated that SDR is not always a problem [54].”
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“It can be said that self-deception plays an important role in the choice of response, even though it is unclear if it is a bias or it may be related to the positive functioning of the person (Tracey, 2016).”
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“SDR was not measured in our study; however, a recent article demonstrated that SDR is not always a problem (Tracey, 2016).”
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“…situations such as personnel selection are motivated to arti fi cially increase their scores on the constructs in question to appear more favorable (e.g., Birkeland et al., 2006; Hu & Connelly, 2021), a process that can be referred to as faking or socially desirable responding (SDR; Tracey, 2016).”
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“É de recordar ainda que esta pesquisa recorreu à avaliação de ambas as variáveis em causa a partir de autorrelatos/autoavaliações dos professores, com a subjetividade e o que tal tipo de medidas implica (McGrath et al., 2010; Tracey, 2016).”
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“Yet, the question about the impact of the consequences was asked after the task, so it might indicate socially desirable responding (e.g., Tracey, 2016), or even cognitive dissonance (Merckelbach & Merten, 2012).”
Instrumentos de autorrelato para avaliar traços antissociais medem o que objetivam medir?
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“which faking has adverse effects at all (for an overview, see Holden, 2008; Tracey, 2016), several studies have shown its distorting effects on the hypothesized factor structure (e.”
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“Esse tipo de instrumento pode levar o participante a respondê-lo de forma socialmente favorável e não com o que representa sua opinião ou comportamento de fato (Tracey, 2016).”
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“There was also a theoretical potential for socially desirable responding which refers to the presentation of oneself in an overly favorable light on self-report questionnaires (Tracey, 2016).”
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“Tracey (2016) notes that whether socially desirable responding takes place depends heavily on individual factors and unique situational variables.”
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“This finding was not surprising in psychological measurement due to social desirability and acquiescence bias (Crosswell and Lockwood, 2020; Tracey, 2016).”
Quinn, J. F., Cola, P. A., Cooper, M., & Miller, C. W. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0328308 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Impression management involves consciously altering responses to create more favorable impression [57], which can be more prevalent when assessments are used in competitive selection processes [58].”
Hacquebord, L. N., Post, W. J., Zijlstra, E. A., & Smit, M. (2025) · Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work · doi:10.1080/15313204.2025.2600298 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vincent, C. G., Gau, J. M., Girvan, E. J., Inglish, J., McClure, H., Svanks, R., & Reiley, D. (2026) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/13654802261419882 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“While self-report might introduce personal biases (Rosenman et al., 2011) or socially desirable responses (Tracey, 2016), it also offers direct insights into participants’ perceptions (Chan, 2010).”
Watson, L. B., Gervais, S. J., Moradi, B., et al. (2026) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/03616843261437756 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…controlling for social desirability rarely yields different results, particularly in contexts not characterized by high-stakes decision making (Tracey, 2016), it is possible that examining implicit bias toward people who have abortions may be helpful in better understanding predictors of…”
Data-Triangulation Through Multiple Methods
McCreery, M. P., Head, D. L., Krach, S. K., Leif, S. A., & Fiorentini, J. P. (2022) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-2468-1.ch005 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
de la Rubia, J. M., Ávila, M. M., Bajonero-Canónico, P., & Villarreal-Garza, C. M. (2019) · Psicooncología · doi:10.5209/psic.65592 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mapping the terrain of Journal of Counseling Psychology: A citation network analysis.
Parent, M. C., Moradi, B., Weis, A. S., & Ouch, S. (2021) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000540 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Teaching information literacy in an undergraduate class on the geography of the Middle East
Orzeck, R. (2022) · Journal of Geography in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03098265.2022.2155802 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The construct validity of the NEO PI-R personality inventory in high stakes employee selection
Fahey, G. (2017) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lingel, H., Bürkner, P., Melchers, K. G., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8rt3j · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Quinn, J. F., Cola, P. A., Cooper, M., & Miller, C. W. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4565994/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Relational Social Justice Identity Development among Chinese International High School Students
Yeh, C. J., Lee, S., & Pérez-Gualdrón, L. (2016) · Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology · doi:10.5539/jedp.v6n2p155
“Participants in our sample may have responded to survey questions in a socially desirable way (Tracey, 2016).”
Background(虚偽の)口コミ投稿行動と人々の属性・動機との関係の実証分析
真一, 山., 浩太郎, 彌., & 洋英, 坂. (2019) · 情報通信学会誌 · doi:10.11430/jsicr.37.1_37
Ibenthal, E., Kehmann, M., & Backhaus, C. (2020) · Annals of Work Exposures and Health · doi:10.1093/annweh/wxaa120
Petersen, S. (2018) · Juniper Online Journal of Public Health · doi:10.19080/jojph.2018.04.555631
Achtsamkeit und Metta im Kontext von Traumafolgestörungen
Kümmerle, S. (2022) · doi:10.21248/gups.71718
Franchi, T. D. L. F., Valentini, F., de Campos, L. B., de Souza, L. D. S., Vanni, P., Mose, L. D. B., & Primi, R. (2024) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1080/15305058.2024.2364167
“Social desirability is one of the most significant, prevalent, and challenging variables to control in research and assessment (Paulhus, 1981; Tracey, 2016; Almiro, 2017).”
- Authors
- Tracey, T. J. G.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tracey, Terence J. G.
- Venue
- Journal of Counseling Psychology
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 63
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 224-232
- ISSN
- 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2168
- OpenAlex
- W2204457280
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 7
- FWCI
- 11.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Keywords
- social desirability bias, Social Desirability Scale, response bias, counseling psychology research, self-report measures
- MeSH terms
- Counseling, Humans, Social Desirability
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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