Stereotype threat and racial differences in citizens’ experiences of police encounters.

Najdowski, Cynthia J.; Bottoms, Bette L.; Goff, Phillip Atiba

doi:10.1037/lhb0000140

Cited by 136Policing Practices and PerceptionsSocial and Intergroup PsychologyRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

Stereotype threat and racial differences in citizens’ experiences of police encounters.

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Najdowski, Cynthia J., Bottoms, Bette L., Goff, Phillip Atiba·2015·Law and Human Behavior

DOI 10.1037/lhb0000140

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Abstract

We conducted 2 studies to investigate how cultural stereotypes that depict Blacks as criminals affect the way Blacks experience encounters with police officers, expecting that such encounters induce Blacks to feel stereotype threat (i.e., concern about being judged and treated unfairly by police because of the stereotype). In Study 1, we asked Black and White participants to report how they feel when interacting with police officers in general. As predicted, Blacks, but not Whites, reported concern that police officers stereotype them as criminals simply because of their race. In addition, this effect was found for Black men but not Black women. In Study 2, we asked Black and White men to imagine a specific police encounter and assessed potential downstream consequences of stereotype threat. Consistent with Study 1, Black but not White men anticipated feeling stereotype threat in the hypothetical police encounter. Further, racial differences in anticipated threat translated into racial differences in anticipated anxiety, self-regulatory efforts, and behavior that is commonly perceived as suspicious by police officers. By demonstrating that Blacks might expect to be judged and treated unfairly by police because of the negative stereotype of Black criminality, this research extends stereotype threat theory to the new domain of criminal justice encounters. It also has practical implications for understanding how the stereotype could ironically contribute to bias-based policing and racial disparities in the justice system.

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Concern among people of color about being stereotyped by law enforcement officers as criminals is a source of anxiety.
“There is also preliminary evidence that concern among people of color regarding being stereotyped by law enforcement of fi cers as criminals is a source of anxiety (Najdowski et al., 2015).”
From A call to dismantle systemic racism in criminal legal systems. (2022) · cites this paper as Najdowski et al., 2015

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Authors: Najdowski, C. J., Bottoms, B. L., & Goff, P. A.
Affiliations: University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
University of Illinois Chicago (US)
University of California, Los Angeles (US)
ORCID: Najdowski, Cynthia J.
Bottoms, Bette L.
Goff, Phillip Atiba
Venue: Law and Human Behavior
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2015-10
Volume: 39
Issue: 5
Pages: 463-477
ISSN: 0147-7307 (ISSN-L)
1573-661X
DOI: 10.1037/lhb0000140
OpenAlex: W2182214135
Cited by: 136
References: 92
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 60.69
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu
Licence: cc-by
Locations: Law and Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics: Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords: stereotype threat, racial stereotypes, police encounters, racial differences, self-regulation, Black men, Black women
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Stereotyping, Police, Black People, White People, Young Adult, Racism

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Stereotype threat and racial differences in citizens’ experiences of police encounters.

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