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Cited by 1,576Social and Intergroup PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionEducation, Achievement, and Giftedness

An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance

Open access
Schmader, Toni, Johns, Michael, Forbes, Chad·2008·Psychological Review
DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336PMC PMC2570773
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Abstract

Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.

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Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336

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  • Stereotype threat may be linked to self-fulfilment effects: by leading subjects to under-perform in stereotype-related tasks, it may contribute to confirmation of stereotypes.

    “stereotype threat may be linked to self-fulfilment effects: by leading subjects to under-perform in stereotype-related tasks, it may contribute to a confirmation of stereotypes”

    From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Schmader et al. [2008]

  • Stereotypes can impair performance on social and cognitive tasks through three interrelated processes: physiological stress responses that impair working memory, enhanced monitoring of one's performance, and active suppression of negative thoughts and emotions.

    “In their review of the literature, Schmader and colleagues found that stereotypes can impair performance on social and cognitive tasks through three specific yet interrelated physiological and psychological processes including: physiological stress responses that impair working memory, enhanced monitoring of one's performance, and active suppression of negative thoughts and emotions.”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008

  • Stereotype threat can lead those who contend with negative stereotypes to avoid situations where aversive stimuli reside.

    “In addition to leading to decrements in performance, these mechanisms can lead”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Schmader et al., 2008

  • Stereotype threat dwells 'in the air' in stereotype-relevant domains; even when threat is not directly and explicitly examined, stereotype threat processes are still at work when people find themselves in contexts where self-relevant negative stereotypes abound.

    “Indeed, stereotype threat dwells”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Schmader, et al., 2008

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Authors
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C.
Affiliations
  • University of Arizona (US)
  • University of Wyoming (US)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Review
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2008-04
Volume
115
Issue
2
Pages
336-356
ISSN
  • 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1471
DOI
10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336
PMC
PMC2570773
OpenAlex
W2029221441
Cited by
1,576
References
180
Citations by year
2026: 57 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 180 · 2019: 132 · 2018: 114 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 86 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 79 · 2012: 70
FWCI
191.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (1R01MH071749)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Keywords
stereotype threat, performance impairment, stress arousal, sustained attention, working memory, self-regulation, executive function, automatic processing, sensorimotor tasks, cognitive tasks, social tasks, process model, stereotype suppression, stress response
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Psychological, Affect, Aggression, Fear, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Stereotyping

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