Treatment refusal and premature termination in psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and their combination: A meta-analysis of head-to-head comparisons.
Abstract
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine rates of treatment refusal and premature termination for pharmacotherapy alone, psychotherapy alone, pharmacotherapy plus psychotherapy, and psychotherapy plus pill placebo treatments. A systematic review of the literature resulted in 186 comparative trials that included a report of treatment refusal and/or premature termination for at least 2 of the 4 treatment conditions. The data from these studies were pooled using a random-effects analysis. Odds Ratio effect sizes were then calculated to compare the rates between treatment conditions, once across all studies and then again for specific client disorder categories. An average treatment refusal rate of 8.2% was found across studies. Clients who were assigned to pharmacotherapy were 1.76 times more likely to refuse treatment compared with clients who were assigned psychotherapy. Differences in refusal rates for pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy were particularly evident for depressive disorders, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. On average, 21.9% of clients prematurely terminated their treatment. Across studies, clients who were assigned to pharmacotherapy were 1.20 times more likely to drop out compared with clients who were assigned to psychotherapy. Pharmacotherapy clients with anorexia/bulimia and depressive disorders dropped out at higher rates compared with psychotherapy clients with these disorders. Treatment refusal and dropout are significant problems in both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy and providers of these treatments should seek to employ strategies to reduce their occurrence. (PsycINFO Database Record
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Non-adherence can have negative consequences for patients and can increase health care costs.
“Therefore, non-adherence can have negative consequences for patients and can increase health care costs [17].”
From Efficacy and Acceptance of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Adults with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Meta-analysis. (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
If a treatment is not acceptable to patients despite demonstrated positive outcomes, it may not be effective in practice.
“If a treatment is not acceptable to patients despite demonstrated positive outcomes, it may not be effective in practice [17].”
From Efficacy and Acceptance of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Adults with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Meta-analysis. (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
Specific forms of drop-out rates are seldom reported, and a consistent definition of drop-out is lacking.
“Currently, in study reports, specific forms of drop-out rates are seldom reported [17], and a consistent definition of drop-out is lacking [28].”
From Efficacy and Acceptance of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Adults with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Meta-analysis. (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
Cites
CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials
the CONSORT Group, Schulz, K. F., Altman, D. G., & Moher, D. (2010) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-18 · Cited by 13,371 · see citing works
Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century
Baker, A. (2001) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7322.1192 · Cited by 10,754 · see citing works
Whiteford, H. A., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A. J., Ferrari, A. J., Erskine, H. E., Charlson, F. J., Norman, R. E., Flaxman, A. D., Johns, N., et al. (2013) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61611-6 · Cited by 6,006 · see citing works
Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K. M., & Christensen, H. (2010) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-10-113 · Cited by 3,292 · see citing works
Walker, E. R., McGee, R. E., & Druss, B. G. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2502 · Cited by 2,976 · see citing works
The Impact of Mental Illness Stigma on Seeking and Participating in Mental Health Care
Corrigan, P. W., Druss, B. G., & Perlick, D. A. (2014) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100614531398 · Cited by 1,642 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of psychotherapy dropout
Wierzbicki, M., & Pekarik, G. (1993) · Professional Psychology: Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.190 · Cited by 1,118 · see citing works
Dropping out of treatment: A critical review.
Baekeland, F., & Lundwall, L. K. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0077132 · Cited by 1,117 · see citing works
Psychotherapy for depression in adults: A meta-analysis of comparative outcome studies.
Cuijpers, P., van Straten, A., Andersson, G., & van Oppen, P. (2008) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013075 · Cited by 1,050 · see citing works
Premature discontinuation in adult psychotherapy: A meta-analysis
Swift, J. K., & Greenberg, R. P. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028226 · Cited by 978 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Providers should also make sure they are aware of situations when premature termination may be more likely, such as with younger clients, with time-unlimited interventions, and in university-based settings (Swift & Greenberg, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationMental Illness Stigma, Help Seeking, and Public Health Programs
Henderson, C., Evans-Lacko, S., & Thornicroft, G. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.301056 · Cited by 959 · see citing works
McHugh, R. K., Whitton, S. W., Peckham, A. D., Welge, J. A., & Otto, M. W. (2013) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.12r07757 · Cited by 800 · see citing works
Compliance With Medication Regimens for Mental and Physical Disorders
Cramer, J. A., & Rosenheck, R. (1998) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.49.2.196 · Cited by 725 · see citing works
Meta-analysis of dropout from cognitive behavioral therapy: Magnitude, timing, and moderators.
Fernandez, E., Salem, D., Swift, J. K., & Ramtahal, N. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000044 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Therapy and Pharmacotherapy for Depression: Singly and in Combination
Hollon, S. D. (1992) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820100018004 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Lambert, M. J., & Shimokawa, K. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0022238 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Huhn, M., Tardy, M., Spineli, L. M., Kissling, W., Förstl, H., Pitschel-Walz, G., Leucht, C., Samara, M., Dold, M., Davis, J. M., et al. (2014) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.112 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Baldwin, S. A., Berkeljon, A., Atkins, D. C., Olsen, J. A., & Nielsen, S. L. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015235 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
A systematic review of dropout from treatment in outpatients with anorexia nervosa
DeJong, H., Broadbent, H. J., & Schmidt, U. H. (2011) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20956 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Interventions for generalized anxiety disorder in older adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Gonçalves, D. C., & Byrne, G. J. (2012) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.08.010 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Antidepressant adherence: are patients taking their medications?
Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2012) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Blanco, C., Heimberg, R. G., Schneier, F. R., Fresco, D. M., Chen, H., Turk, C. L., Vermes, D., Erwin, B. A., Schmidt, A. B., Juster, H. R., et al. (2010) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.11 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Strategies for Reducing Patient-Initiated Premature Termination of Psychotherapy
Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Joyce, A. S., & Piper, W. E. (2005) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/10673220590956429 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Konarski, J. Z., Kennedy, S. H., Segal, Z. V., Lau, M. A., Bieling, P., McIntyre, R. S., & Mayberg, H. S. (2009) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1139/jpn.0923 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Outcomes of patients completing and not completing cognitive therapy for depression
Cahill, J., Barkham, M., Hardy, G. E., Rees, A., Shapiro, D. A., Stiles, W. B., & Macaskill, N. D. (2003) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466503321903553 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
de Maat, S. C. M., Dekker, J., Schoevers, R. A., & de Jonghe, F. (2006) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300600756402 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Practice recommendations for reducing premature termination in therapy.
Swift, J. K., Greenberg, R. P., Whipple, J. L., & Kominiak, N. K. (2012) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0028291 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing clinically significant change to identify premature termination.
Swift, J., Callahan, J. L., & Levine, J. (2009) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0017003 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychotherapy Versus Second-Generation Antidepressants in the Treatment of Depression
Spielmans, G. I., Berman, M. I., & Usitalo, A. N. (2011) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e31820caefb · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Premature termination in psychotherapy: Strategies for engaging clients and improving outcomes.
Swift, J. K., & Greenberg, R. P. (2014) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14469-000 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationDecreasing treatment dropout by addressing expectations for treatment length
Swift, J. K., & Callahan, J. L. (2011) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2010.541294 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationBiases in research: risk factors for non-replicability in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy research
Leichsenring, F., Abbass, A. A., Hilsenroth, M. J., Leweke, F., Luyten, P., Keefe, J. R., Midgley, N., Rabung, S., Salzer, S., & Steinert, C. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171600324x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Björk, T., Björck, C., Clinton, D. N., Sohlberg, S., & Norring, C. E. A. (2009) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.911 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Further examination of the psychotherapy preference effect: A meta-regression analysis.
Swift, J. K., Callahan, J. L., Ivanovic, M., & Kominiak, N. K. (2013) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/a0031423 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationDekker, J., Koelen, J. A., Van, H. L., Schoevers, R. A., Peen, J., Hendriksen, M., Kool, S., van Aalst, G., & de Jonghe, F. (2007) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.10.015 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
What went wrong? Therapists’ reflections on their role in premature termination
Piselli, A., Halgin, R. P., & MacEwan, G. (2011) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2011.573819 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
A delay discounting measure of great expectations and the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
Swift, J. K., & Callahan, J. L. (2008) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/0735-7028.39.6.581 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationType of counseling termination and trainee therapist–client agreement about change
Lampropoulos, G. K. (2010) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515071003721552 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Searching the scientific literature: Implications for quantitative and qualitative reviews
Wu, Y. P., Aylward, B. S., Roberts, M. C., & Evans, S. C. (2012) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.007 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Psychotherapy Versus Pharmacotherapy of Depression: What’s the Evidence?
Leichsenring, F., Steinert, C., & Hoyer, J. (2016) · Zeitschrift für psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie · doi:10.13109/zptm.2016.62.2.190 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Predictors of premature discontinuation of treatment in multiple disease states
Nantz, E., Liu-Seifert, H., & Skljarevski, V. (2009) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s4633 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Conducting a two-stage preference trial: Utility and challenges
Sidani, S., Fox, M. T., & Epstein, D. R. (2015) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.02.006 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Payne, L. A., White, K. S., Gallagher, M. W., Woods, S. W., Shear, M. K., Gorman, J. M., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2016) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22457 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Clinical errors that can occur in the treatment decision-making process in psychotherapy.
Park, J., Goode, J., Tompkins, K. A., & Swift, J. K. (2016) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/pst0000066 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationThe rebirth of psychosocial importance in a drug-filled world.
Greenberg, R. P. (2016) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000054 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Treatment of eating disorders: A systematic meta-review of meta-analyses and network meta-analyses
Monteleone, A. M., Pellegrino, F., Croatto, G., Carfagno, M., Hilbert, A., Treasure, J. L., Wade, T. D., Bulik, C. M., Zipfel, S., Hay, P., et al. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104857 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Lipschitz, J. M., Pike, C. K., Hogan, T. P., Murphy, S. A., & Burdick, K. E. (2023) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-023-00297-3 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Merz, J., Schwarzer, G., & Gerger, H. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0951 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Jerome, L., Feduccia, A. A., Wang, J. B., Hamilton, S., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Emerson, A., Mithoefer, M. C., & Doblin, R. (2020) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05548-2 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
RetractedSchnurr, P. P., Hamblen, J. L., Wolf, J., Coller, R., Collie, C. F., Fuller, M. A., Holtzheimer, P. E., Kelly, U. A., Lang, A. J., McGraw, K., et al. (2024) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m23-2757 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Evidence was insuf fi cient to recommend for or against the combination of evidence-based medications or psychotherapies to enhance treatment outcomes in PTSD (recommendation 21).”
BackgroundThe importance of listening to patient preferences when making mental health care decisions
Swift, J. K., Mullins, R. H., Penix, E. A., Roth, K. L., & Trusty, W. T. (2021) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20912 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citation(2018) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.16408 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Goldberg, S. B., Riordan, K. M., Sun, S., Kearney, D. J., & Simpson, T. L. (2020) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110232 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Dalhuisen, I., van Oostrom, I., Spijker, J., Wijnen, B. F. M., van Exel, E. R., van Mierlo, H. C., de Waardt, D., Arns, M., Tendolkar, I., & van Eijndhoven, P. (2024) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20230556 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Predicting patients who will drop out of out-patient psychotherapy using machine learning algorithms
Bennemann, B., Schwartz, B., Giesemann, J., & Lutz, W. (2022) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2022.17 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“For an overview of patient characteristics and differences between the groups see Supplementary materials 2.”
BackgroundDrop‐outs in psychotherapy: a change of perspective
Leichsenring, F., Sarrar, L., & Steinert, C. (2019) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20588 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Toward a paradigm shift in treatment and research of mental disorders
Leichsenring, F., Steinert, C., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719002265 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“(6) About 20% of patients drop out of psychotherapy, even more of pharmacotherapy (Swift et al., 2017), with patients apparently experiencing the treatments as not acceptable.”
BackgroundVally, Z., Cody, B. L., Albloshi, M. A., & Alsheraifi, S. N. M. (2018) · Perspectives in Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12282 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Busmann, M., Wrege, J. S., Meyer, A. H., Ritzler, F., Schmidlin, M., Lang, U. E., Gaab, J., Walter, M., & Euler, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00952 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In Tufekcioglu et al. (2013), the authors have shown that alliance ruptures occur more often in the therapeutic alliance of patients with PD than in patients with non-PD.”
BackgroundPredictors of dropout in interdisciplinary chronic pain management programmes: A systematic review
Oosterhaven, J., Wittink, H. M., Mollema, J., Kruitwagen, C. L. J. J., & Devillé, W. L. J. M. (2018) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.2340/16501977-2502 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Overall and differential attrition in mindfulness-based interventions: A meta-analysis
Lam, S. U., Kirvin-Quamme, A., & Goldberg, S. B. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-01970-z · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Very similar to estimates of attrition derived from psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy generally (i.e., 19.7 to 21.9%; Swift & Greenberg, 2012; Swift et al., 2017), approximately one in five participants randomized to an MBI or control condition did not complete post-treatment assessments (19.”
MethodInfluentialThe Relationship Between Dropout and Outcome in Naturalistic Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Zieve, G. G., Persons, J. B., & Yu, L. A. D. (2018) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2018.05.004 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“None of the large meta-analyses of predictors of dropout investigate outcome as a predictor of dropout (Fernandez, Salem, Swift, & Ramtahal, 2015; Swift et al., 2017; Swift et al., 2012; Wierzbicki & Pekarik, 1993).”
BackgroundAdverse effects of psychotherapy: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis
Klatte, R., Strauss, B. M., Flückiger, C., & Rosendahl, J. (2018) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-018-0802-x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Fu, C. H. Y., Yong Fan, A., & Davatzikos, C. A. (2019) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101997 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Bentley, K. H., Cohen, Z. D., Kim, T., Bullis, J. R., Nauphal, M., Cassiello-Robbins, C., Sauer-Zavala, S., Sbi, S., Gallagher, M. W., Farchione, T. J., et al. (2021) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2021.03.007 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Given the inconsistent findings in this area (and surprisingly little research overall; e.g., Fernandez et al., 2015; Swift et al., 2017), more research is needed to better understand the relationship between symptom change during CBT and dropout.”
BackgroundMechanisms of Change in Exposure Therapy for Anxiety and Related Disorders: A Research Agenda
Benito, K., Pittig, A., Abramowitz, J. S., Arch, J. J., Chavira, D. A., de Kleine, R. A., Nadai, A. S. D., Hermans, D., Hofmann, S. G., Hoyer, J., et al. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241240727 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“The CACE modeling approach can also be used to address participants who prematurely discontinue treatment, which is common (Swift et al., 2017).”
Predicting and preventing dropout in research, assessment and treatment with refugees
Semmlinger, V., & Ehring, T. W. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2672 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Voderholzer, U., Barton, B. B., Favreau, M., Zisler, E. M., Rief, W., Wilhelm, M., & Schramm, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1415905 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Inclusion and exclusion strategies for conducting meta-analyses
Swift, J. K., & Wampold, B. E. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1405169 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Deficits in Patients With Depression
Richardson, L. G., & Adams, S. M. (2018) · The Journal for Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2018.03.006 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Maroti, D., Ek, J., Widlund, R.-M., Schubiner, H. H., Lumley, M. A., Lilliengren, P., Bilevičiūtė-Ljungar, I., Ljótsson, B., & Johansson, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.620359 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Giesemann, J., Delgadillo, J., Schwartz, B., Bennemann, B., & Lutz, W. (2023) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2022.2161432 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The meta-analysis of Swift et al. (2017) reported an average of 21.9% of clients ending therapy prematurely.”
BackgroundInfluentialFinnerty, M. T., Layman, D. M., Chen, Q., Leckman-Westin, E., Bermeo, N., Ng-Mak, D. S., Rajagopalan, K., & Hoagwood, K. E. (2018) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201800130 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Maas genannt Bermpohl, F., Kucharczyk-Bodenburg, A.-C., & Martin, A. (2024) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-023-10254-2 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Jørgensen, M. S., Bo, S., Vestergaard, M., Storebø, O. J., Sharp, C., & Simonsen, E. H. (2021) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1871525 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis of 186 trials on psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy, Swift et al. (2017) found that around 21.9% of clients with mixed mental disorders dropped out of treatment.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSimmonds‐Buckley, M., Osivwemu, E.-O., Kellett, S., & Taylor, C. A. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102187 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Fruchter, E., Goldenthal, N., Adler, L. A., Gross, R., Harel, E. V., Deutsch, L., Nacasch, N., Grinapol, S., Amital, D., Voigt, J. D., et al. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115711 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…to the use of pharmacologic therapies for PTSD, patients can have a higher reluctance to initiating pharmacologic therapy vs. psychotherapy (Swift et al., 2017) and higher dropout rates vs. psychotherapy (Swift et al., 2017) based on unwanted side effects from the drugs (Williams et al., 2022).”
BackgroundNo increase in inflammation in late-life major depression screened to exclude physical illness
Prak, E. T. L., Brooks, T. G., Makhoul, W., Beer, J. C., Zhao, L., Girelli, T., Skarke, C., & Sheline, Y. I. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01883-4 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Ravindran, A. V., McKay, M. S., Silva, T. D., Tindall, C., Garfinkel, T., Paric, A., & Ravindran, L. (2021) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743720940535 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Smith, N. B., Sippel, L. M., Rozek, D. C., Hoff, R. A., & Harpaz‐Rotem, I. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00362 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Vöhringer, M., Knaevelsrud, C., Wagner, B., Slotta, M., Schmidt, A., Stammel, N., & Böttche, M. (2020) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1706297 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…have been carried out with various specific focuses in recent years (Fernandez et al., 2015; Imel, Laska, Jakupcak, & Simpson, 2013; Kayrouz et al., 2018; Kuester, Niemeyer, & Knaevelsrud, 2016; Melville et al., 2010; Swift & Greenberg, 2012; Swift et al., 2017; van Ballegooijen et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMohr, D. C., Silverman, A. L., Youn, S. J., Areán, P. A., Bertagnolli, A., Carl, J. R., Carlton, T., Chaudhary, N., Cooper, D. E., DeVito, S., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1509387 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
van Bronswijk, S. C., Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Huibers, M. J. H., & Peeters, F. P. M. L. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.135 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Attitudes of Austrian Psychotherapists Towards Process and Outcome Monitoring
Kaiser, T., Schmutzhart, L., & Laireiter, A. (2018) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-018-0862-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Berghuis, H., Bandell, C. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2020) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000429 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Altmann, U., Thielemann, D., Zimmermann, A. S., Steffanowski, A., Bruckmeier, E., Pfaffinger, I., Fembacher, A., & Strauss, B. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00748 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The discontinuation rate in pharmacotherapy is still 1.76 times higher than in psychotherapy (Swift et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialCarpallo-González, M., Muñoz‐Navarro, R., González‐Blanch, C., & Vindel, A. C. (2023) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100379 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…disorders (DR disaggregated by disorder) Individual, group and online Gersh et al. (2017) 45 2224 GAD Individual Swift, Greenberg, Tompkins, and Parkin (2017) 182 17891 Various disorders Individual and group Leeuwerik, Cavanagh and Strauss (2019) 123 5627 OCD Individual and group Lewis,…”
Backgroundvan Dijk, D. A., Deen, M. L., van den Boogaard, T. M., Ruhé, H. G., Spijker, J., & Peeters, F. P. M. L. (2022) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-022-01499-1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Second and related, this lack of information on the content of the treatment and the reasons for dropout prevents a more detailed analysis of an association between treatment type and dropout, and their potential interaction with sociodemographic variables; this would be relevant given the difference in dropout betwee…”
BackgroundResultThe Efficacy of Experiential Dynamic Therapies: A 10‐Year Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis Update
Lilliengren, P., Mechler, J., Lindqvist, K., Maroti, D., & Johansson, R. (2025) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.70086 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The average dropout rate of 13% suggests that EDT is tolerated similarly to psychotherapy in general (Swift et al. 2017), and we found no indication of differences in dropout rates compared to active control conditions.”
Scanavino, M. D. T., Guirado, A. G., Marques, J. M., do Amaral, M. L. S., Messina, B., dos Reis, S. C., Barros, V. B., Abdo, C. H. N., Tavares, H., & Parsons, J. T. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2023.00004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Swift, J. K., Spencer, J., & Goode, J. (2018) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2018.1439192 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationLorenzo‐Luaces, L., Howard, J., Jesús-Romero, R. D., Peipert, A., Buss, J., Lind, C. M., Botts, K., & Starvaggi, I. (2022) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-022-10338-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Most individuals with internalizing disorder symptoms prefer, and are more likely to adhere to (Swift et al., 2017), treatment with psychological interventions than with medications (Löwe et al.”
BackgroundPsychotherapy Trends in the United States
Olfson, M., McClellan, C. B., Zuvekas, S. H., Wall, M. M., & Blanco, C. (2025) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20240492 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
An introduction to the special issue on psychotherapy termination.
Hilsenroth, M. J. (2017) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/pst0000106 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Therapist Interventions and Skills as Predictors of Dropout in Outpatient Psychotherapy
Poster, K., Bennemann, B., Hofmann, S. G., & Lutz, W. (2021) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2021.05.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Poor suitability for psychotherapy – a risk factor for treatment non-attendance?
Knekt, P., Grandell, L., Sares‐Jäske, L., & Lindfors, O. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.09.020 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Psychological distress and infertility: prevalence, impact, and interventions
Clifton, J., & Domar, A. D. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818309-0.00013-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Beyond Pharmacology: A Narrative Review of Alternative Therapies for Anxiety Disorders
Antos, Z., Zackiewicz, K., Tomaszek, N., Modzelewski, S., & Waszkiewicz, N. (2024) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases12090216 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“For example, aerobic exercise, as a form of exposure therapy, allows patients to confront their fears in a controlled environment while taking advantage of the anxiolytic properties of physical activity [59].”
BackgroundMorrin, H., Yeung, J. A., Agnew, Z. K., Østergaard, S. D., & Pollak, T. A. (2026) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/91454 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Meta-ana-lytic syntheses report substantial dropout and show that resolving alliance ruptures relates to better trajectories [35-38].”
Stange, J. P., Jenkins, L. M., Bessette, K. L., Kling, L. R., Bark, J. S., Shepard, R., Hamlat, E. J., DelDonno, S. R., Phan, K. L., Passarotti, A. M., et al. (2018) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2018.0619 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“A common challenge in conducting longitudinal studies, including those involving neuroimaging methods, is attrition, or the loss of study participants over time (Carter et al., 2008; Swift et al., 2017; Young et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHall, S. B., Bartley, A. G., Wenk, J., Connor, A., Dugger, S. M., & Casazza, K. (2022) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/jcad.12439 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“A high rate of TR may reflect a mismatch between client preferences and the available service or the presence of barriers including inconvenience, cost, or negative outcome expectations (Swift et al., 2017).”
BackgroundRagucci, F., Dragan, M., Cuomo, A., Fagiolini, A. M., & Pozza, A. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2024.100802 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Jacobsen, C. F., Karstoft, K., Falkenström, F., Nielsen, J., Lunn, S., & Poulsen, S. (2024) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2024.2353358 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Studies show that community and client samples alike tend to prefer psychotherapy over pharmacotherapy (Swift et al., 2017), and that laypersons tend to prefer therapy activities high on therapist directive-ness, emotional intensity and unconditional support (Cooper et al., 2019; Heinze et al.,…”
Gumz, A., Kästner, D., Reuter, L., Moura, C. M., Ehlers, K., Daubmann, A., Eubanks, C. F., Muran, J., Anderson, T., Stöckl, R., et al. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-098343 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mital, R., Hay, P., Conti, J., & Mannan, H. R. (2022) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-022-00601-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“A further meta-analysis that utilised the data of 186 comparative trials found that both treatment refusal and premature treatment termination were linked with a non-preferred treatment modality [12].”
MethodVancampfort, D., Damme, T. V., McGrath, R. L., Hemmings, L., Gillis, V., Bernar, K., dos Santos, E. B., & Schuch, F. B. (2024) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2024.02.735 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Schmalbach, I., Witthöft, M., Strauss, B. M., Joraschky, P., & Petrowski, K. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02882-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Predictors of CBT-pretreatment intervention engagement and completion: Evidence for peer support.
Nelson, C. B., Lusk, R. K., Cawood, C. D., Boore-Clor, L., Ranganathan, A., & Lyubkin, M. (2018) · Psychological Services · doi:10.1037/ser0000268 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Garland, M. M., Wilson, R., Thompson, W. K., Stein, M. B., Paulus, M. P., Feinstein, J. S., & Khalsa, S. S. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286899 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Notwithstanding this limitation, these levels of adherence are broadly comparable to traditional behavioral interventions for anxiety and depression, whose treatment completion rates hover around 80% [30].”
Austad, C. S., & Gendron, M. S. (2018) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/pro0000197 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Trainieren und Messen therapeutischer Beziehungskompetenzen
Gumz, A. (2023) · PDP – Psychodynamische Psychotherapie · doi:10.21706/pdp-22-3-204 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Stephenson, C., Moghimi, E., Shao, Y., Kumar, A., Yee, C. S., Miller, S., Stefatos, A., Gholamzadehmir, M., Abbaspour, Z., Jagayat, J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1194955 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Uckelstam, C.-J. (2021) · Linköping studies in behavioural science · doi:10.3384/diss.diva-172754 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Martsevich, S. Y., Петровна, З. Н., Zagrebelnyy, A. V., Кутишенко, Н. П., Lukina, Y. V., Ginzburg, М. L., & Drapkina, O. M. (2023) · Rational Pharmacotherapy in Cardiology · doi:10.20996/1819-6446-2023-2988 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
McChrystal, R., Lees, J. S., Gillies, K., McAllister, D., & Hanlon, P. (2025) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-025-08794-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sin, P. Y., Li, W. H. C., Fan, M. S. N., Ng, S. C., & Choi, K. C. (2025) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2025.105081 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lei, S., Liu, Q., Leong, I., Fan, J., Tsang, Y., Liu, X., Xu, X., & Zhuang, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1330054 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Goldman, R. E., Hilsenroth, M. J., Gold, J. R., Cersosimo, B. H., Levy, S. R., & Owen, J. J. (2018) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/int0000124 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Psychotherapy for Mixed Depression and Mixed Mania
O’Brien, B., Lee, D. J., Swann, A. C., Mathew, S. J., & Lijffijt, M. (2019) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2019.10.014 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kan, K., Feenstra, T., de Vries, S. O., Visser, E., Schoevers, R. A., & Jörg, F. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.010 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A cohort study of engagement in telehealth psychotherapy versus in-person services
Gibbons, M. B. C., Duong, L. A., Chiu, R. Y., Crits-Christoph, P. F., Gallop, R., Mandell, D. S., Barg, O., Newman, C. F., Brown, L. A., & Oquendo, M. A. (2024) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2024.2375231 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“An estimated 19% of individuals receiving mental health services in a nationally representative sample (Olfson et al., 2009) and 22% of individuals receiving psychotherapy as part of randomized controlled trials (Swift et al., 2017) terminate psychotherapy prematurely.”
Lipner, L. M., Katz, M., Tzor, K., Amar, A., & Yonatan‐Leus, R. (2025) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2025.2551067 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…termination from psychotherapy ranges from 19.7% to 46.86% across different populations and treatment contexts (Sharf et al., 2010; Swift & Greenberg, 2012; Swift et al., 2017; Wierzbicki & Pekarik, 1993), representing a substantial percentage of patients whose treatment outcomes remain unclear.”
InfluentialUrmanche, A. A., Lipner, L. M., Bloch‐Elkouby, S., Hunter, E., Kaufmann, J., Warren, J. T., Weil, G. T., Eubanks, C. F., & Muran, J. C. (2021) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2021.1997916 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Based on recommendations to evaluate the session(s) preceding premature termination (Swift et al., 2017), some promising and innovative work has been conducted with Turkish students (Gülüm, Soygüt, & Safran, 2018) and adolescents (O’Keeffe, Martin, Target, & Midgley, 2019), and we hope to…”
MethodGorrell, S., Rienecke, R. D., Duffy, A., Huston, E. M., Mehler, P. S., Johnson, C., Manwaring, J. L., McClanahan, S. F., Blalock, D. V., & Grange, D. L. (2022) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2021.2011648 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“A considerable literature has examined premature termination from psychotherapy treatment across broader patient populations (Swift et al., 2017).”
BackgroundGumz, A., Daubmann, A., Erices, R., Berger, J., Reuter, L., & Kästner, D. (2024) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2024.2327443 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“At the same time, there are still many patients who do not adequately benefit from their psychotherapy (Barkham & Lambert, 2021; Cuijpers et al., 2021), and on average up to a quarter of all patients drop out of therapy prematurely (Fernandez et al., 2015; Swift et al., 2017).”
Neurobiological Foundations of Psychotherapies
Guina, J., Kay, J., & Yatim, F. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_168 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Moments of disappointment in art therapy: patients’ perspectives
Vulcan, M., & Goldner, L. (2025) · International Journal of Art Therapy · doi:10.1080/17454832.2025.2468377 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Premature termination of psychotherapy or drop-out, i.e. a patient’s unilateral termination of services prior to completion of a recommended course of psychological treatment (Swift et al., 2012; Swift et al., 2017), is a widespread clinical phenomenon.”
Tait, J., Kellett, S., & Delgadillo, J. (2025) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2025.103003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Leonidaki, V., & Constantinou, M. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2669 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pfund, R. A., Valencia, A. J., Hudson, E., Ginley, M. K., & Whelan, J. P. (2024) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-024-10349-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The continued enhancement of engaging prospective clients yielded another 9% gain and a show rate approaching the 92% attendance rate for initial sessions for other mental health concerns (Swift et al., 2017).”
Generation of fundamental soliton in the presence of initial linear chirp
Kaczmarek, T. (2004) · Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lenz, L., König, H., Leitner, M., & Hajek, A. (2025) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2025.10849 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In their meta-analysis, Swift et al 12 found an overall treatment refusal rate of 8.2% and an overall premature termination rate of 21.9%.”
InfluentialTakahashi, N., Takatsuki, K., Kasahara, S., & Yabuki, S. (2021) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/bmr-200292 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Physiological effects of Therapeutic Body Wraps in healthy volunteers: An observational study
Korogod, N., Skuza, K., Bangerter, G., & Opsommer, E. (2022) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2022.07.020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Muñoz‐Navarro, R., Pérez‐Jover, V., Esteller-Collado, G., Román, C. J. V.-D. H., Salgueiro, M., Llorca, A., Malonda-Vidal, E., Canet-Cortell, V., Moraga-García, M. J., Coloma‐Carmona, A., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0320857 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis by Swift et al. [49] found that patients on pharmacotherapy had a higher dropout rate than patients receiving psychotherapy alone.”
Cunningham, C. E., Rimas, H. L., Sivayoganathan, T., Stewart, B., Munn, C., Zipursky, R. B., Christensen, B. K., & Furimsky, I. (2020) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696820946894 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Systematic reviews conclude that patients offered medication are more likely to refuse treatment or to subsequently drop out of treatment than those offered psychotherapy (Swift et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMotivational Interviewing Enhances Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
Strodl, E. S., & Yang, J. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcpsy-d-20-00025 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Treating Later-Life Depression
Steffen, A. M., Thompson, L. W., & Gallagher-Thompson, D. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190068431.001.0001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ryttinger, R., Serralta, F. B., Pires, N., Basto, I., Melo, G. R., & Ribeiro, E. (2022) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1080/02109395.2022.2132750 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In the current study, dropout is defined as a premature and unilateral discontinuation after the client begins the psychotherapy, before recovering from their suffering and without the agreement of the therapist (Swift et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialJohnson, R. J. (2020) · Psychology and Mental Health Care · doi:10.31579/2637-8892/067 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cascia, C. L., Ferraro, L., Seminerio, F., Scaglione, A., Maniaci, G., Matranga, D., Sideli, L., Colli, G., Sartorio, C., Paglia, F. L., et al. (2020) · Minerva Psichiatrica · doi:10.23736/s0391-1772.20.02092-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
„Talking cures“ – Sprache als Medium in Psychotherapien
Gumz, A., & Strauss, B. M. (2022) · Psychotherapeut · doi:10.1007/s00278-022-00578-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Immerhin bis zu ein Viertel aller Patienten im Durchschnitt bricht die Therapie vorzeitig ab (Cahill et al. 2003; Fernandez et al. 2015; Swift und Greenberg 2012; Swift et al. 2017).”
BackgroundPreventing Dropout in Research, Assessment and Treatment with Refugees - a guidelinePreprint
Semmlinger, V., & Ehring, T. W. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/nukv3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies 101
Steffen, A. M., Thompson, L. W., & Gallagher-Thompson, D. E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190068431.003.0004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Professional Development Resources
Steffen, A. M., Thompson, L. W., & Gallagher-Thompson, D. E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190068431.005.0001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Swift, J. K., Greenberg, R. P., Tompkins, K. A., & Parkin, S. R.
- Affiliations
- Idaho State University (US)
- SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
- University of Alaska Anchorage (US)
- ORCID
- Swift, Joshua K.
- Venue
- Psychotherapy
- Published
- 2017-03
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-57
- ISSN
- 0033-3204 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1536
- OpenAlex
- W2593514681
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 1.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychotherapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Family Practice › Medication Adherence and Compliance
- Keywords
- treatment refusal, early termination, treatment discontinuation, pharmacotherapy, combined psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy, depressive disorders, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, medication adherence
- MeSH terms
- Combined Modality Therapy, Humans, Object Attachment, Patient Dropouts, Psychotherapy, Psychotropic Drugs, Psychotherapeutic Processes, Placebo Effect, Treatment Refusal
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
