Eating frequency in relation to body mass index and waist circumference in British adults
Open accessAbstract
Background Inconsistent associations between eating frequency (EF) and adiposity may be mainly due to measurement errors of EF. Objective This cross-sectional study examined the association of EF with body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC), by focusing on the confounding of energy misreporting and the effect of exclusion of underreporters (URs). Design Dietary intake was assessed using a 7-day weighed dietary record in 1487 British adults aged 19-64 years. EF was calculated based on all eating occasions (EF(all)), after excluding those providing no energy (EF(energy)), and after excluding those providing <210 kJ of energy (EF(⩾210 kJ)). Energy misreporting was assessed as reported energy intake divided by estimated energy requirement (EI:EER). Results The mean values (1st and 99th percentiles) of EF(all), EF(energy) and EF(⩾210 kJ) were, respectively, 7.8 (3.1, 15.3), 7.2 (2.9, 12.7), and 5.6 (2.3, 10.7) times/day in men and 7.6 (3.0, 13.9), 6.7 (2.7, 12.1), and 4.8 (1.9, 9.1) times/day in women. In the univariate analyses of the entire male population, EF(⩾210 kJ), but not EF(all) and EF(energy), was inversely associated with BMI and WC. After full adjustment (including EI:EER), all three measures of EF were positively associated with BMI and WC. In the univariate analyses of the entire female population, all three measures of EF were inversely associated with BMI and WC. After full adjustment, EF(⩾210 kJ) was positively associated with BMI and WC while EF(all) and EF(energy) showed null associations. When URs (EI:EER <0.665) were excluded, the multivariate analyses showed that EF(all) and EF(energy) were positively associated with BMI in men while EF(⩾210 kJ) was positively associated with BMI and WC in both sexes. Conclusions We showed positive associations of EF with BMI and WC. Adjustment for EI:EER and the exclusion of URs, as well as definitions of EF, radically affected the results of the analysis.
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Murakami & Livingstone found the number of reported eating occasions per day was reduced by two or more eating occasions for both men and women after applying a minimum-energy criterion of 210 kJ.
“In support of this, Murakami & Livingstone( 55 ) found the number of reported EO per d was reduced by two or more EO for both men and women after applying a minimum-energy criterion of 210 kJ.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [55]
In the same study, different definitions of an eating occasion greatly affected the results of the association between eating frequency and BMI and waist circumference.
“In the same study, the different definitions of an EO greatly affected the results of the association between eating frequency and BMI and waist circumference.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [55]
In a recent study, compared with a definition including all energy-containing eating occasions, a definition using a minimum energy criterion of ≥210 kJ produced a stronger correlation between eating frequency and energy intake (men: r=0.45 vs 0.53; women: r=0.39 vs 0.57), and this remained after excluding energy misreporters.
“A recent study( 55 ) showed that, compared with a definition that included all energy-containing EO, there was a stronger correlation between eating frequency and EI after applying a definition that used a minimum energy criterion of ≥ 210 kJ (men: r 0·45 v. 0·53; women r 0·39 v. 0·57, respectively), which remained after excluding energy misreporters.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [55]
Although it is widely acknowledged that different definitions used to define meals and snacks are likely to hamper interpretation of findings across studies, research explicitly examining the impact of these different definitions is rare.
“Although it is widely acknowledged that different definitions used to define meals/snacks are likely to hamper interpretation of findings across studies( 8 , 44 ), research explicitly examining the impact of these different definitions is rare( 55 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [55]
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Cites
Association between Eating Patterns and Obesity in a Free-living US Adult Population
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Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422414000262 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions
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- Authors
- Murakami, K., & Livingstone, M. B. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Ulster (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Murakami, K
- Venue
- International Journal of Obesity
- Published
- 2014-01-10
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1200-1206
- ISSN
- 0307-0565 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5497
- OpenAlex
- W2006788080
- Cited by
- 69
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 7
- FWCI
- 9.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Obesity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Keywords
- meal frequency, body mass index, waist circumference, adiposity, energy intake, sex differences, UK adults, weighed dietary records, measurement error correction, obesity risk factors, measurement bias
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Cross-Sectional Studies, Feeding Behavior, Female, United Kingdom, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Nutrition Surveys, Occupations, Socioeconomic Factors, Time Factors, Diet Records, Body Mass Index, Waist Circumference
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