Daily eating frequency and cardiometabolic risk factors in young Australian adults: cross-sectional analyses
Open accessAbstract
Eating frequency may be important in the development of overweight and obesity and other cardiometabolic risk factors; however, the evidence is inconsistent. The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between the number of eating occasions and cardiometabolic risk factors in a national population-based sample of young adults. A cohort of 1273 men and 1502 women, aged 26–36 years, completed a meal pattern chart to record when they had eaten during the previous day (in hourly intervals). The total number of eating occasions was calculated. Diet quality was assessed, waist circumference was measured and a fasting blood sample was taken. Dietary intake was compared with the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. The associations between the number of eating occasions and cardiometabolic risk factors were calculated using linear regression. Analyses were adjusted for age, education and physical activity. Most men ate three to five times per d and most women ate four to six times. The proportion of participants meeting dietary recommendations increased with the number of eating occasions. For men, an additional eating occasion was associated with reductions in mean values for waist circumference ( − 0·75 cm), fasting glucose ( − 0·02 mmol/l), fasting insulin ( − 0·34 mU/l; 2·04 pmol/l), TAG ( − 0·03 mmol/l), total cholesterol ( − 0·08 mmol/l) and LDL-cholesterol ( − 0·06 mmol/l). Adjustment for waist circumference attenuated the results. Significant trends were not observed for women. In conclusion, a higher number of eating occasions were associated with reduced cardiometabolic risk factors in men. Many associations were mediated by waist circumference.
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In the pilot study, consuming three meals/d increased total and LDL-cholesterol.
“Moreover, they found pro-atherogenic effects (increased total and LDL-cholesterol) and anti-atherogenic effects (increased HDL-cholesterol and decreased TAG) after consuming three meals/d.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In a randomised controlled cross-over pilot study in twenty men and women aged 40-50 years with BMI in normal range, blood pressure, both systolic and diastolic, was significantly lower (6%) when consuming three meals/d compared with one meal/d.
“Results showed that blood pressure, both systolic and diastolic, was significantly lower (6 %) when consuming three meals/d v. one meal/d.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the pilot study, consuming one meal/d led to significantly lower feelings of fullness.
“Consuming one meal/d decreased cortisol concentrations and led to more hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption was estimated higher and feelings of fullness were significantly lower.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
The pilot study's findings suggest that, without a reduction in energy intake, a reduced meal frequency does not offer major health benefits in human subjects.
“Although the results of this pilot study showed that normal-weight subjects were able to comply with a one meal/d regimen, the findings suggest that, without a reduction in energy intake, a reduced meal frequency does not offer major health benefits in human subjects (66) .”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the pilot study, consuming one meal/d decreased cortisol concentrations.
“Consuming one meal/d decreased cortisol concentrations and led to more hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption was estimated higher and feelings of fullness were significantly lower.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the same pilot study, body weight was significantly higher when consuming three meals/d compared with one meal/d.
“However, body weight was significantly higher when consuming three meals/d as well as fat mass.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the same pilot study, fat mass was significantly higher when consuming three meals/d compared with one meal/d.
“However, body weight was significantly higher when consuming three meals/d as well as fat mass.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the pilot study, consuming three meals/d increased HDL-cholesterol and decreased TAG.
“Moreover, they found pro-atherogenic effects (increased total and LDL-cholesterol) and anti-atherogenic effects (increased HDL-cholesterol and decreased TAG) after consuming three meals/d.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
In the pilot study, consuming one meal/d led to more hunger, desire to eat, and higher prospective consumption.
“Consuming one meal/d decreased cortisol concentrations and led to more hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption was estimated higher and feelings of fullness were significantly lower.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [66]
Where questionnaire items were used, the reliability and/or validity of these measures were rarely reported.
“Importantly, where questionnaire items were used, the reliability and/or validity of these measures were rarely reported( 56 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [56]
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Ahadi, Z., Kelishadi, R., Qorbani, M., Zahedi, H., MOTLAGH, M. E., Ardalan, G., Shafiee, G., Asayesh, H., Larijani, B. A., & Heshmat, R. (2023) · Minerva Pediatrics · doi:10.23736/s2724-5276.16.04525-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Eating behaviours and cardiovascular disease and diabetes risk in young Australian adults
Smith, K. (2011) · UTAS Research Repository · doi:10.25959/23211638
Self-citationCho, Y. M., & Lee, K. S. (2023) · Journal of Korean Critical Care Nursing · doi:10.34250/jkccn.2023.16.2.67
- Authors
- Smith, K. J., Blizzard, L., McNaughton, S. A., Gall, S. L., Dwyer, T., & Venn, A. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Tasmania (AU)
- Deakin University (AU)
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Smith, Kylie J.
- Venue
- British Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2011-12-16
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1086-1094
- ISSN
- 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2662
- OpenAlex
- W2117493243
- Cited by
- 57
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 2.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) (submittedVersion)
- Deakin Research Online (Deakin University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Heart Foundation of Australia
- Tasmanian Community Fund
- Medical Research Council
- National Health and Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Keywords
- meal frequency, meal patterns, cardiometabolic risk factors, waist circumference, fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, young adults, sex differences, diet quality, Australian Guide to Healthy Eating
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Australia, Blood Glucose, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Health Promotion, Health Surveys, Humans, Insulin, Lipids, Male, Patient Compliance, Risk Factors, Sex Characteristics, Cohort Studies, Diet Records, Nutrition Policy, Metabolic Syndrome, Waist Circumference
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