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Bell violation using entangled photons without the fair-sampling assumption
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The violation of a Bell inequality is an experimental observation that forces the abandonment of a local realistic viewpoint--namely, one in which physical properties are (probabilistically) defined before and independently of measurement, and in which no physical influence can propagate faster than the speed of light. All such experimental violations require additional assumptions depending on their specific construction, making them vulnerable to so-called loopholes. Here we use entangled photons to violate a Bell inequality while closing the fair-sampling loophole, that is, without assuming that the sample of measured photons accurately represents the entire ensemble. To do this, we use the Eberhard form of Bell's inequality, which is not vulnerable to the fair-sampling assumption and which allows a lower collection efficiency than other forms. Technical improvements of the photon source and high-efficiency transition-edge sensors were crucial for achieving a sufficiently high collection efficiency. Our experiment makes the photon the first physical system for which each of the main loopholes has been closed, albeit in different experiments.
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“As the CHSH inequality is minimally violated in an optically realised system, 64,65 the randomness output is also very small (with min-entropy of H min =7.2 × 10 -5 in each run), and the randomness generation rate is 0.4 bits per s.”
From Quantum random number generation (2016) · cites this paper as [64]
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Takubo, Y., Ichikawa, T., Higashino, S., Mori, Y., Nagano, K., & Tsutsui, I. (2021) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.104.056004 · Cited by 23
Wagner, R., & Briggs, G. A. D. (2016) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198747956.001.0001 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Giustina, M., Mech, A., Ramelow, S., Wittmann, B., Kofler, J., Beyer, J., Lita, A., Calkins, B., Gerrits, T., Nam, S. W., Ursin, R., & Zeilinger, A.
- Affiliations
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (DE)
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Giustina, Marissa
- Zeilinger, Anton
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2013-04-14
- Volume
- 497
- Issue
- 7448
- Pages
- 227-230
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2009502003
- Cited by
- 660
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 109 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 35
- FWCI
- 50.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Nature Cell Biology
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation
- Austrian Science Fund
- National Institute of Standards and Technology
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (227844)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Semiconductor Quantum Structures and Devices
- Keywords
- Bell inequality violation, entangled photons, local realism, transition edge sensors, photon pair sources, collection efficiency, quantum foundations
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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