The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Bell violation using entangled photons without the fair-sampling assumption
Open accessAbstract
The violation of a Bell inequality is an experimental observation that forces the abandonment of a local realistic viewpoint--namely, one in which physical properties are (probabilistically) defined before and independently of measurement, and in which no physical influence can propagate faster than the speed of light. All such experimental violations require additional assumptions depending on their specific construction, making them vulnerable to so-called loopholes. Here we use entangled photons to violate a Bell inequality while closing the fair-sampling loophole, that is, without assuming that the sample of measured photons accurately represents the entire ensemble. To do this, we use the Eberhard form of Bell's inequality, which is not vulnerable to the fair-sampling assumption and which allows a lower collection efficiency than other forms. Technical improvements of the photon source and high-efficiency transition-edge sensors were crucial for achieving a sufficiently high collection efficiency. Our experiment makes the photon the first physical system for which each of the main loopholes has been closed, albeit in different experiments.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As the CHSH inequality is minimally violated in an optically realised system, 64,65 the randomness output is also very small (with min-entropy of H min =7.2 × 10 -5 in each run), and the randomness generation rate is 0.4 bits per s.”
From Quantum random number generation (2016) · cites this paper as [64]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?
Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., & Rosen, N. (1935) · Physical Review · doi:10.1103/physrev.47.777 · Cited by 16,654
On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox
Bell, J. S. (1964) · Physics Physique Fizika · doi:10.1103/physicsphysiquefizika.1.195 · Cited by 12,252
Proposed Experiment to Test Local Hidden-Variable Theories
Clauser, J. F., Horne, M. A., Shimony, A., & Holt, R. A. (1969) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.23.880 · Cited by 7,573
Experimental Test of Bell's Inequalities Using Time- Varying Analyzers
Aspect, A., Dalibard, J., & Roger, G. (1982) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.49.1804 · Cited by 3,942
Speakable and Unspeakable in Quatum Mechanics
Bell, J. S., & Mermin, N. D. (1988) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.2811599 · Cited by 2,985
Experimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories
Freedman, S. J., & Clauser, J. F. (1972) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.28.938 · Cited by 1,999
Violation of Bell's Inequality under Strict Einstein Locality Conditions
Weihs, G., Jennewein, T., Simon, C., Weinfurter, H., & Zeilinger, A. (1998) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.81.5039 · Cited by 1,643
Self-citationExperimental consequences of objective local theories
Clauser, J. F., & Horne, M. A. (1974) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.10.526 · Cited by 1,537
Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection
Rowe, M. A., Kielpinski, D., Meyer, V., Sackett, C. A., Itano, W. M., Monroe, C., & Wineland, D. J. (2001) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35057215 · Cited by 1,043
Counting near-infrared single-photons with 95% efficiency
Lita, A. E., Miller, A. J., & Nam, S. W. (2008) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.16.003032 · Cited by 734
Self-citationHidden-Variable Example Based upon Data Rejection
Pearle, P. M. (1970) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.2.1418 · Cited by 619
Eberhard, P. H. (1993) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.47.r747 · Cited by 582
Violation of Bell's inequality in Josephson phase qubits
Ansmann, M., Wang, H., Bialczak, R. C., Hofheinz, M., Lucero, E. A., Neeley, M., O’Connell, A. D., Sank, D., Weides, M. P., Wenner, J., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08363 · Cited by 443
Heralded entanglement between widely separated atoms
Hofmann, J., Krug, M., Ortegel, N., Gérard, L., Weber, M., Rosenfeld, W., & Weinfurter, H. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1221856 · Cited by 442
A wavelength-tunable fiber-coupled source of narrowband entangled photons
Fedrizzi, A., Herbst, T., Poppe, A., Jennewein, T., & Zeilinger, A. (2007) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.15.015377 · Cited by 440
Self-citationPhase-stable source of polarization-entangled photons using a polarization Sagnac interferometer
Kim, T., Fiorentino, M., & Wong, F. N. C. (2006) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.73.012316 · Cited by 428
Bell Inequality Violation with Two Remote Atomic Qubits
Matsukevich, D. N., Maunz, P., Moehring, D. L., Olmschenk, S., & Monroe, C. (2008) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.100.150404 · Cited by 392
Highly Sensitive and Easy-to-Use SQUID Sensors
Drung, D., Aßmann, C., Beyer, J., Kirste, A., Peters, M., Ruede, F., & Schurig, T. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2007.897403 · Cited by 347
Self-citationViolation of local realism with freedom of choice
Scheidl, T., Ursin, R., Kofler, J., Ramelow, S., Ma, X., Herbst, T., Ratschbacher, L., Fedrizzi, A., Langford, N. K., Jennewein, T. D., et al. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1002780107 · Cited by 336
Self-citationLoophole-free Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen experiment via quantum steering
Wittmann, B., Ramelow, S., Steinlechner, F., Langford, N. K., Brunner, N., Wiseman, H. M., Ursin, R., & Zeilinger, A. (2012) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/14/5/053030 · Cited by 254
Self-citationClosing the Detection Loophole in Bell Experiments Using Qudits
Vértesi, T., Pironio, S., & Brunner, N. (2010) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.104.060401 · Cited by 253
Conclusive quantum steering with superconducting transition-edge sensors
Smith, D. H., Gillett, G., de Almeida, M. P., Branciard, C., Fedrizzi, A., Weinhold, T. J., Lita, A. E., Calkins, B., Gerrits, T., Wiseman, H. M., et al. (2012) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms1628 · Cited by 233
Self-citationDetector inefficiencies in the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen experiment
Garg, A., & Mermin, N. D. (1987) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.35.3831 · Cited by 230
Proposal for a loophole-free Bell inequality experiment
Kwiat, P. G., Eberhard, P. H., Steinberg, A. M., & Chiao, R. Y. (1994) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.49.3209 · Cited by 222
Bennet, A., Evans, D. A., Saunders, D. J., Branciard, C., Cavalcanti, E. G., Wiseman, H. M., & Pryde, G. J. (2012) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.2.031003 · Cited by 190
Detection Loophole in Asymmetric Bell Experiments
Brunner, N., Gisin, N., Scarani, V., & Simon, C. (2007) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.98.220403 · Cited by 116
Highly efficient heralding of entangled single photons
Ramelow, S., Mech, A., Giustina, M., Gröblacher, S., Wieczorek, W., Beyer, J., Lita, A. E., Calkins, B., Gerrits, T., Nam, S. W., et al. (2013) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.21.006707 · Cited by 84
Self-citationTowards a Loophole-Free Test of Bell's Inequality with Entangled Pairs of Neutral Atoms
Rosenfeld, W., Weber, M., Volz, J., Henkel, F., Krug, M., Cabello, A., Żukowski, M., & Weinfurter, H. (2009) · Advanced Science Letters · doi:10.1166/asl.2009.1059 · Cited by 38
Towards a Loophole-Free Test of Bell's Inequality with Entangled Pairs of Neutral Atoms
Rosenfeld, W., Weber, M., Volz, J., Henkel, F., Krug, M., Cabello, A., Zukowski, M., & Weinfurter, H. (2009) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 29
Quantum Mechanics Braces for the Ultimate Test
Merali, Z. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.331.6023.1380 · Cited by 19
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Alicki, R. Remarks on the violation of Bell’s inequality in Josephson phase qubits. Preprint at http://arxiv.org/abs/0911.4009 (2009) · arXiv
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Loophole-free Bell inequality violation using electron spins separated by 1.3 kilometres
Hensen, B., Bernien, H., Dréau, A. E., Reiserer, A., Kalb, N., Blok, M. S., Ruitenberg, J., Vermeulen, R. F. L., Schouten, R. N., Abellán, C., et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature15759 · Cited by 2,852
Brunner, N., Cavalcanti, D., Pironio, S., Scarani, V., & Wehner, S. (2014) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.86.419 · Cited by 2,688
Significant-Loophole-Free Test of Bell’s Theorem with Entangled Photons
Giustina, M., Versteegh, M. A. M., Wengerowsky, S., Handsteiner, J., Hochrainer, A., Phelan, K., Steinlechner, F., Kofler, J., Larsson, J.-Å., Abellán, C., et al. (2015) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.115.250401 · Cited by 1,529
Self-citationStrong Loophole-Free Test of Local Realism
Shalm, L. K., Meyer-Scott, E., Christensen, B. G., Bierhorst, P., Wayne, M. A., Stevens, M. J., Gerrits, T., Glancy, S., Hamel, D. R., Allman, M. S., et al. (2015) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.115.250402 · Cited by 1,402
Self-citationMicrowave photonics with superconducting quantum circuits
Gu, X. Q., Kockum, A. F., Miranowicz, A., Liu, Y.-X., & Nori, F. (2017) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2017.10.002 · Cited by 1,337
Metadata
- Authors
- Giustina, M., Mech, A., Ramelow, S., Wittmann, B., Kofler, J., Beyer, J., Lita, A., Calkins, B., Gerrits, T., Nam, S. W., Ursin, R., & Zeilinger, A.
- Affiliations
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (DE)
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Giustina, Marissa
- Zeilinger, Anton
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2013-04-14
- Volume
- 497
- Issue
- 7448
- Pages
- 227-230
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2009502003
- Cited by
- 660
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 109 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 35
- FWCI
- 50.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Nature Cell Biology
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation
- Austrian Science Fund
- National Institute of Standards and Technology
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (227844)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Semiconductor Quantum Structures and Devices
- Keywords
- Bell inequality violation, entangled photons, local realism, transition edge sensors, photon pair sources, collection efficiency, quantum foundations
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
