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Oral microbiome: possible harbinger for children’s health
Open accessAbstract
The human microbiome functions as an intricate and coordinated microbial network, residing throughout the mucosal surfaces of the skin, oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and reproductive system. The oral microbiome encompasses a highly diverse microbiota, consisting of over 700 microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. As our understanding of the relationship between the oral microbiome and human health has evolved, we have identified a diverse array of oral and systemic diseases associated with this microbial community, including but not limited to caries, periodontal diseases, oral cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and inflammatory bowel syndrome. The potential predictive relationship between the oral microbiota and these human diseases suggests that the oral cavity is an ideal site for disease diagnosis and development of rapid point-of-care tests. The oral cavity is easily accessible with a non-invasive collection of biological samples. We can envision a future where early life salivary diagnostic tools will be used to predict and prevent future disease via analyzing and shaping the infant’s oral microbiome. In this review, we present evidence for the establishment of the oral microbiome during early childhood, the capability of using childhood oral microbiome to predict future oral and systemic diseases, and the limitations of the current evidence.
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“The mucosal surfaces serve as the chief substrata available for microbial colonization in the infant oral cavity.141”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [141]
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“Additional early colonizers, such as Gemella, Rothia, Granulicatella, and Haemophilus, present at 3‐6 months of age and increase in abundance with time.141, 142”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [141]
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“The second challenge in oral treatment arises from exposure to the high diversity of the oral microbiome for the external environment, which encompasses over 700 microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria [37].”
Song, Q., Xiao, B., Huang, H., Ma, L., Zhang, J. V., & Zhu, Y. (2022) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-022-04630-1 · Cited by 14
Multi-omics analysis reveals the host–microbe interactions in aged rhesus macaques
Xu, J., Lan, Y., Wang, X., Shang, K., Liu, X., Wang, J., Li, J., Yue, B., Shao, M., & Fan, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.993879 · Cited by 11
“In addition, oral bacteria are implicated in oral and dental health as well as many diseases that affect the elderly, such as non-oral cancers, cardiovascular disease, and Alzheimer’s disease (Hezel and Weitzberg, 2015; Olsen and Singhrao, 2015; Shoemark and Allen, 2015; Fan et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWu, T. T., Sohn, M. B., Manning, S., Beblavy, R., Gill, S. R., Quataert, S. A., Vasani, S., Jang, H., Zeng, Y., Bruno, J. E., et al. (2023) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-023-03997-9 · Cited by 11
“When assessing the longitudinal influence of the mothers on the establishment of children’s oral microbiome, the impact first occurs when the babies are still in the womb [10].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSchulz‐Weidner, N., Weigel, M., Turujlija, F., Komma, K., Mengel, J. P., Schlenz, M. A., Bulski, J. C., Krämer, N., & Hain, T. (2021) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms9091904 · Cited by 11
KOMB: K-core based de novo characterization of copy number variation in microbiomes
Balaji, A., Sapoval, N., Seto, C., Elworth, R. A. L., Fu, Y., Nute, M., Savidge, T., Segarra, S., & Treangen, T. J. (2022) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2022.06.019 · Cited by 11
Bacterioplankton Richness and Composition in a Seasonal Urban River
Xiao, Z., Li, G., Zhao, Y., Xiao, K., Chen, Q., Bao, P., Tang, J., Ruan, T., Zama, E. F., & Xu, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Environmental Science · doi:10.3389/fenvs.2021.731227 · Cited by 10
“Since microbes play an essential role in the biogeochemical cycling of trace elements and are closely related to human health, there is a growing concern about the conservation of microbial biodiversity (Reese et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe microbiota of pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 and their infants
Leftwich, H. K., Vargas-Robles, D., Rojas-Correa, M., Yap, Y. R., Bhattarai, S. K., Ward, D. V., Fujimori, G., Forconi, C. S., Yeboah, T., Carter, A., et al. (2023) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-023-01577-z · Cited by 10
Dalix, E., & Marotte, H. (2024) · Joint Bone Spine · doi:10.1016/j.jbspin.2024.105822 · Cited by 12
Tongue coating microbiota-based machine learning for diagnosing digestive system tumours
Ma, Y., Jiang, Z., Wang, Y., Pan, L., Liu, K., Xia, R., Li, Y., & Cheng, X. (2025) · Journal of Oral Microbiology · doi:10.1080/20002297.2025.2487645 · Cited by 10
“…an increasing number of studies have confirmed that changes in the oral microbiome are not only direct precursors to oral diseases such as periodontitis and oral cancer [10,11], but oral microbial dysbiosis can also lead to systemic diseases, particularly digestive sys-tem diseases [12,13].”
NorthPop: a prospective population-based birth cohort study
West, C. E., Holgerson, P. L., Chmielewska, A., Lundberg, R., Lagerqvist, C., Sjöström, E. S., Wulff, K., Sandström, O., Mogren, I., Silfverdal, S., et al. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23561-y · Cited by 11
“The oral microbiota and children’s dietary patterns are primarily causing caries disease, but other external and internal factors contribute [52].”
Olate, P., Martínez, A., Sans-Serramitjana, E., Cortés, M., Díaz, R., Hernández, G., Paz, E. A., Sepúlveda, N., & Quiñones, J. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26167983 · Cited by 11
“As children grow, the oral microbiome continues to transform in response to tooth eruption, dietary diversification, and progressive divergence from the maternal oral microbiota [25].”
Jang, H., Jallad, N. A., Wu, T. T., Zeng, Y., Fadaak, A., Malmström, H., Fiscella, K. A., & Xiao, J. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07871 · Cited by 10
“Traditional microbial risk markers for caries include Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus species [24].”
BackgroundSelf-citationDuque, C., Chrisostomo, D. A., Souza, A. C. A., Braga, G. P. D. A., dos Santos, V. R., Caiaffa, K. S., Pereira, J. A., de Oliveira, W. C., Ribeiro, A. A., & Parisotto, T. M. (2022) · Current Pediatric Reviews · doi:10.2174/1573396318666220811124848 · Cited by 11
Fernandes, M., Azevedo, M. J., Campos, C., Ferreira, A. F., Azevedo, Á. F., Falcão‐Pires, I., Zaura, E., Ramalho, C. M. A., Campos, J., & Sampaio‐Maia, B. (2023) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens12010080 · Cited by 10
“The host–microbiome dyad regulates paramount aspects of host physiology, metabolism, immunity, and neurologic function [2].”
BackgroundCould there be an interplay between periodontal changes and pancreatic malignancies?
Ungureanu, B. S., Gheorghe, D. N., Nicolae, F. M., Râmboiu, S., Radu, P. A., Şurlin, V., Strâmbu, V., Gheonea, D. I., Roman, A., & Șurlin, P. (2023) · World Journal of Clinical Cases · doi:10.12998/wjcc.v11.i3.545 · Cited by 11
Angelopoulou, A., Harris, H. M. B., Warda, A. K., O'Shea, C., Lavelle, A., Ryan, C. A., Dempsey, E. M., Stanton, C., Hill, C., & Ross, R. P. (2024) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.04051-23 · Cited by 9
“Using LEfSe, we did observe an increase in the genus Streptococcus in samples with an SCC of ≥250,000, with increasing abundance from H to SM, to CM. Streptococcus is a core member of the human milk microbiota, and Streptococcus spp. are dominant commensals in the oral cavity of infants (41).”
Natal factors influencing newborn’s oral microbiome diversity
Kim, Y., Lee, T., Kim, H., Jeong, S. J., Han, J. H., Shin, J. E., Lee, J. H., & Kang, C. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-78609-7 · Cited by 9
Park, J. W., Lee, K. E., Choi, D. H., Kim, Y.-K., Lee, W. H., Kim, M. S., Sung, H. W. J., Chang, J. W., & Park, Y. S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-49871-y · Cited by 8
“Oral bacteria are substantial risk factors for systemic disorders such as diabetes, preterm birth, and cardiovascular disease, as the oral cavity is a clinically relevant microbial habitat and a gateway to the gut 2,13 .”
Wu, S., Ye, X., Wang, J., Li, M., Fu, Y., & Wang, S. (2026) · Neoplasia · doi:10.1016/j.neo.2026.101290 · Cited by 11
You, Y., Yin, M., Zheng, X., Liang, Q., Zhang, H., Wu, B., & Xu, W. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.15605 · Cited by 8
“Unlike the microbiome of other parts of the body, the oral microbiome is considered to be highly diverse ( Xiao, Fiscella & Gill, 2020 ).”
Ghadimi, D., Ebsen, M., Röcken, C., Fölster‐Holst, R., Groessner‐Schreiber, B., Dörfer, C. E., & Bockelmann, W. (2022) · Endocrine Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871530322666220408215101 · Cited by 8
Pivrncova, E., Burešová, L., Kotásková, I., Videnska, P., Andrýsková, L., Piler, P., Janků, P., Borek, I., Böhm, J., Klánová, J., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-68953-z · Cited by 8
“The genera Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Veillonella , and Lactobacillus are recognized as the first oral colonizers 55,57,58 .”
BackgroundImpact of ovalbumin allergy on oral and gut microbiome dynamics in 6-week-old BALB/c mice
Qiao, C., Bian, S., Huang, H., Xiao, H., Ma, L., & Han, R. (2024) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2024.1439452 · Cited by 7
“This evolution leads to a diverse and intricate microbiome that is closely linked to the gut microbiota in both early stages of life and disease (Escapa et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSjödin, K. S., Sjödin, A., Rydén, P., Mogren, I., Domellöf, M., Holgerson, P. L., & West, C. E. (2025) · BMC Microbiology · doi:10.1186/s12866-025-04521-3 · Cited by 10
Ahearn-Ford, S., Kakaroukas, A., Young, G. R., Nelson, A., Berkeveld, M. A., van Elburg, R. M., Smith, D., Berrington, J. E., Embleton, N. D., & Stewart, C. J. (2025) · mSystems · doi:10.1128/msystems.00667-25 · Cited by 7
“The oral cavity contains the second most diverse microbial community of the human body after the gut and harbors a distinct community of microbes, which may colonize the gut and have been associated with various oral and systemic diseases (9).”
The pediatric oral mycobiome: a comprehensive review of its role in health and disease
Xiang, Z., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2026.1711789 · Cited by 8
The tongue microbiome of young patients with chronic kidney disease and their healthy mothers
Höfer, K. C., Weber, L. T., Barbe, A. G., Graf, I., Thom, S., Nowag, A., Scholz, C. J., Wisplinghoff, H., Noack, M. J., & Jazmati, N. (2024) · Clinical Oral Investigations · doi:10.1007/s00784-024-05492-x · Cited by 7
“The primary diseases of the patients were as follows: congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), 11; glomerulopa-thy, 9; ciliopathy, 7; systemic disease, 1; and other diseases, 2.”
Ogaya, Y., Kadota, T., Hamada, M., Nomura, R., & Nakano, K. (2024) · Journal of Oral Microbiology · doi:10.1080/20002297.2024.2339158 · Cited by 7
“During and after birth, newborns are exposed to a variety of microorganisms, but only some of them colonize the oral cavity [34].”
BackgroundImportance of Interkingdom Interactions Among Oral Microbiome Towards Caries Development – A Review
Balakrishnan, K., Sivanesan, D., Mohan, G., Gunthe, S. S., & Verma, R. S. (2021) · Journal of Immunological Sciences · doi:10.29245/2578-3009/2021/2.1211 · Cited by 6
Oral Microbiome and Oral Cancer
Perera, M. L., Perera, I. R., & Tilakaratne, W. M. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119893035.ch7 · Cited by 7
Neumann, C., Mohammadzadeh, R., Woh, P. Y., Kobal, T., Pausan, M.-R., Shinde, T., Haid, V., Mertelj, P., Weiss, E., Kolovetsiou-Kreiner, V., et al. (2024) · mSystems · doi:10.1128/msystems.01071-24 · Cited by 6
“However, little is known about the possible interaction and parallel development of the GIT and oral microbiomes (6, 12, 13).”
InfluentialImmonen, E., Paulamäki, L., Piippo, H., Nikkilä, A., Aine, L., Peltomäki, T., Lohi, O., & Parikka, M. (2025) · BMC Oral Health · doi:10.1186/s12903-025-06405-4 · Cited by 6
Haraguchi, M., Kim, Y., Watanabe, N., Yamazaki, K., Newman, K. L., Gillilland, M. G., Guo, Y., Watanabe, D., Bergin, I. L., Suzuki, T., et al. (2025) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115974 · Cited by 8
“35,36 While the mother-to-infant transmission of oral microbes is a natural step in establishing a healthy oral microbiota in offspring, it can also lead to a potential acquisition of “unwanted” oral pathobionts.”
Cultivable Oral Microbiota in Puppies
Kačírová, J., Horňáková, Ľ., Maďari, A., Mravcová, K., & Maďar, M. (2021) · Folia veterinaria · doi:10.2478/fv-2021-0029 · Cited by 6
“Escherichia coli along with Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are highly prevalent in the first several months of an infant’s life, before tooth eruption [21].”
BackgroundOral microbiome characteristics in patients with pediatric solid tumor
Cui, X., Du, X., Cui, X., Fan, R., Pan, J., & Wang, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1286522 · Cited by 6
“The oral microbiome is closely associated with children’s health (Xiao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundAmin, M., Khan, F. R., Allana, A. R., Barolia, R., & Azam, I. (2024) · BMC Oral Health · doi:10.1186/s12903-024-04093-0 · Cited by 6
“A diverse range of bacteria thrive in the oral cavity and oral cavity acts as a harbor to them and there is a possibility of acquiring oral complications during cancer treatment [3].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Xiao, J., Fiscella, K. A., & Gill, S. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Rochester Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Xiao, Jin
- Gill, Steven R.
- Venue
- International Journal of Oral Science
- Published
- 2020-04-30
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 12-12
- ISSN
- 1674-2818 (ISSN-L)
- 2049-3169
- PMC
- PMC7190716
- OpenAlex
- W3022810381
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 172
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 4.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Oral Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (K23 DE027412)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › General Dentistry › Dental Health and Care Utilization
- Keywords
- oral microbiota, early childhood, salivary diagnostics, disease prediction, oral diseases, systemic disease, dental caries, periodontal disease, oral cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, point-of-care testing, infant oral microbiota
- MeSH terms
- Child Health, Child, Humans, Infant, Mouth, Microbiota
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