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The promise of mRNA vaccines: a biotech and industrial perspective
Open accessAbstract
mRNA technologies have the potential to transform areas of medicine, including the prophylaxis of infectious diseases. The advantages for vaccines range from the acceleration of immunogen discovery to rapid response and multiple disease target manufacturing. A greater understanding of quality attributes that dictate translation efficiency, as well as a comprehensive appreciation of the importance of mRNA delivery, are influencing a new era of investment in development activities. The application of translational sciences and growing early-phase clinical experience continue to inform candidate vaccine selection. Here we review the state of the art for the prevention of infectious diseases by using mRNA and pertinent topics to the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.
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“Messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapy recently emerged as an effective platform for treatment of infectious diseases and cancer (Jackson et al., 2020; Mascola and Fauci, 2020).”
From A thermostable mRNA vaccine against COVID-19 (2020) · cites this paper as Jackson et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“mRNA vaccines still suffer from decreased efficacy due to poor RNA stability in solution and in vivo and to limited expression of the payload mRNA; these are all pivotal issues that need to be carefully optimized for preclinical and clinical applications3–6.”
From Combinatorial optimization of mRNA structure, stability, and translation for RNA-based therapeutics (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
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Cites
mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology
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“32, 33 This has been an intense area of research in the field, for which lipid nanoparticle (LNP) formulations are currently emerging as a leading category.”
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“20 Manufacturers of mRNA vaccines pay careful attention to the choice of enzyme and reaction conditions, in order to catalyze the highest percentage of cap formation.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 499
mRNA Technology in Modern Medicine: Review and Future Prospects
Silva, H. M. (2025) · Clinical and Molecular Epidemiology · doi:10.53964/cme.2025001 · Cited by 4
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Oral non-viral gene delivery platforms for therapeutic applications
Ghaemi, A., Azghandi, M. V., Abnous, K., Taghdisi, S. M., Ramezani, M., & Alibolandi, M. (2023) · International Journal of Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123198 · Cited by 6
Chalermphanchai, N., Arunothong, W., Jettavan, N., Chanta, S., Boonpisitsakul, T., Mayoon, M., Lueangchiranothai, P., Yodsurang, N., Chanchue, W., Tananuchit, Y., et al. (2022) · Vaccine X · doi:10.1016/j.jvacx.2022.100148 · Cited by 6
“Despite the importance and high level of neutralization antibodies after immunization [19,21] or in convalescent persons [21], the effectiveness of neutralizing antibody or anti-spike antibody titer in protecting and preventing COVID19 infection, hospitalization, death, or transmission remains unknown.”
Nguyen, H. V., Abramov, M., Rozenski, J., Eremeeva, E., & Herdewijn, P. A. (2022) · ChemBioChem · doi:10.1002/cbic.202200060 · Cited by 7
Recent Advances in mRNA Vaccine DevelopmentPreprint
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Challenges and Opportunities Used in RNA-Based Therapeutics
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Lorbetskie, B., White, T., Creskey, M., Zhang, X., Girard, M., Tam, R. Y., Sauvé, S., & Lu, H. (2022) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463424 · Cited by 5
“First-generation accines were based on nucleic acids and non-replicating viral vecors, which allowed novel technologies to debut effective vaccine andidates at the global scale [1 , 2] .”
Design and in silico analysis of mRNA vaccine construct against Salmonella
Imdad, M. J., Khan, M. N., Alam, H. S., Khan, A. B., Mirani, Z. A., Khan, A. U., & Ahmed, F. (2022) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2022.2119280 · Cited by 5
“50 and 30 UTRs stand out to be the most unique regulators of protein expression, therefore, their design and selection is critically important (Jackson et al., 2020).”
BackgroundImmunisation against COVID-19 in Pregnancy and of Women Planning Pregnancy
Konje, J. C., Beloushi, M. A., & Ahmed, B. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15030621 · Cited by 7
“They are also easily degraded, with a half-life that can be regulated through modification to the template or delivery methods [13].”
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Future prospects in mRNA vaccine development
Mbatha, L. S., Akinyelu, J., Maiyo, F., & Kudanga, T. (2023) · Biomedical Materials · doi:10.1088/1748-605x/aceceb · Cited by 7
“During this purification step, the DNA template, nucleotides, and enzymes are all removed, since they have been reported to produce impurities and trigger the induction of inflammatory cytokines [2].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEngineering an Escherichia coli based in vivo mRNA manufacturing platform
Curry, E., Muir, G., Qu, J., Kis, Z., Hulley, M. E., & Brown, A. J. (2024) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.28684 · Cited by 5
“Additionally, the mRNA manufactured in such optimized processes will need to be fully profiled to validate required critical quality attributes such as impurity levels and integrity of full ‐ length primary sequences (Jackson et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLiu, Y., Suzuoki, M., Tanaka, H., Sakurai, Y., Hatakeyama, H., & Akita, H. (2024) · Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin · doi:10.1248/bpb.b23-00689 · Cited by 5
Nichol, A. A. (2020) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2020.1763696 · Cited by 5
“Many scientists believe this new kind of vaccine platform holds the potential to “transform areas of medicine, including the prophylaxis of infectious diseases,” (Jackson et al. 2020).”
BackgroundChoi, J. Y., Mahadik, B. P., & Fisher, J. P. (2021) · Essays in Biochemistry · doi:10.1042/ebc20200105 · Cited by 5
Messenger ribonucleic acid vaccines for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 – a review
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“SAM contains these essential elements, but it also encodes viral replication machinery which enables intracellular RNA amplification thereby increasing protein expression compared with non-replicating RNA.(2,15) The process of in vitro transcription results in many byproducts, including contaminating double-stranded R…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPQQ Supplementation and SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein-Induced Heart Inflammation
Boretti, A. (2022) · Natural Product Communications · doi:10.1177/1934578x221080929 · Cited by 5
“mRNA vaccine works by providing the body with genetic information as a form of mRNA to produce viral proteins.(17-19) These viral proteins are the spike proteins found on the surface of SARS-CoV-2.”
BackgroundDiscovery of compounds inhibiting SARS-COV-2 multi-targets
Sasidharan, S., Sarkar, N., & Saudagar, P. (2022) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2021.2025149 · Cited by 5
“If the sequence encoding the immunogen is available, then the RNA synthesis is carried out on the same platform (Jackson et al., 2020).”
Assay for rapid quantification of capped and tailed intact mRNA
Gao, R. Y., Hu, T., Taylor, A. W., Lacey, R., Thomas, K. N., McCormick, C., Miller, D. F., Rowlen, K. L., & Dawson, E. D. (2025) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.127339 · Cited by 4
Trends and Commonalities of Approved and Late Clinical-Phase RNA Therapeutics
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“If this was highly beneficial in bringing more light to the many applications of RNAs, especially on the industrial side of things [30,177,178], it did not bring a lot of variety, as the urgency of the situation led to a clear preference for the use of tried and proven concepts.”
CMC and QMS Regulatory Requirements and Challenges for mRNA-based Vaccines
Tyagi, S., Shukla, V. K., & Arora, S. (2024) · Current Drug Therapy · doi:10.2174/0115748855267031240102070325 · Cited by 4
Biopharmaceutical Production by Recombinant DNA Technology: Future Perspectives
Parasuraman, S., Narayanan, D. K. L., Ganeson, T., Sayem, A. S. M., Chuah, J. J., & Krishnamoorthy, V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-4235-6_12 · Cited by 4
CMC and regulatory aspects of oligonucleotide therapeutics
Rupp, T. M., & Cramer, H. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821595-1.00012-9 · Cited by 4
COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine Degradation Prediction By Using Deep Learning Algorithms
Chze, O. N., & Abdullah, A. A. (2022) · International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT) · doi:10.1109/3ict56508.2022.9990617 · Cited by 4
“Developing RNA sequences is cheaper and less complicated as it voids the challenges of protein purification methods [12].”
BackgroundTherapeutic Proteins and Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products
Eppink, M. H. M., Wapenaar, M., Crommelin, D. J. A., Hawe, A., Giezen, T. J., Black, A., & Tam, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20298-8_24 · Cited by 4
Structure-performance analysis of oligo(dT) resin affinity chromatography for RNA separations
Grinsted, J., Bouleghlimat, E., Rosa, S. S., Marques, M. P. C., & Bracewell, D. G. (2025) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2025.466382 · Cited by 4
Post-vaccination reactions occurring in patients vaccinated against SARS-COV-2
Wróblewska, I. M., Wróblewska, Z. M., Grudzień, R., Dziechciaż, M., Czabak-Garbacz, R., Choina, P., & Chmielewski, J. P. (2021) · Medycyna Ogólna i Nauki o Zdrowiu · doi:10.26444/monz/145063 · Cited by 4
Lipid Nanoparticles: Key Facilitators of mRNA Vaccine Development
Cholkar, S. S., Gawade, A. R., & Kuchekar, A. B. (2022) · Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia · doi:10.13005/bbra/2979 · Cited by 4
Structural basis for substrate binding and selection by human mitochondrial RNA polymerase
Herbine, K., Nayak, A. R., & Temiakov, D. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50817-9 · Cited by 4
“…RNAPs is important for enzymatic synthesis of RNA, ef fi cient production of mRNA for vaccines such as the Moderna and P fi zer Covid19 vaccines 5 , development of anti-cancer drugs targeting human mitochondrial RNAP (mtRNAP, or POLRMT) 6 , and sensible design of nucleotide-based pro-drugs to…”
Applications of nanotechnology in the fight against coronavirus disease 2019
Sayad, R., Abdelsabour, H. A., Farhat, S. M., Omer, N. G., Ahmed, M., Elsayh, K. I., Ibrahim, I. H., Algammal, A. M., Al-Kadmy, I. M. S., Batiha, G. E., et al. (2023) · Reviews in Medical Microbiology · doi:10.1097/mrm.0000000000000335 · Cited by 4
“[121,122] mRNA vaccines have many advantages such as: they have high efficiency and safety, low production cost and the potential for rapid large-scale production.”
Factors affecting the willingness of mental health staff to get vaccinated against COVID‐19
Dahan, S., Bloemhof‐Bris, E., Weizman, S., Pesah, M., Gorno, N., Shah, M. A., Levi, G., & Shelef, A. (2022) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.13722 · Cited by 4
“This technology was previously used for the treatment of various diseases, including infectious disorders and some cancers.(9) mRNA succeeds in eliciting good immune response combined with a high safety profile.”
MethodmRNA Vaccine Development in the Fight Against Zoonotic Viral Diseases
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“Second, mRNA vaccines can be scalable, rapidly and inexpensively manufactured in a cell-free environment [30].”
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“Finally, working together, academia, industry, and regulatory agencies can expedite development by using lessons learned from HIV vaccine research and COVID-19 mRNA vaccine successes to guide trial designs and delivery systems (Shepherd et al. 2022; Jackson et al. 2020 ).”
Hu, M., Li, Y., Cai, Y., He, X., Fan, J., Wang, J., Mu, Y., Shen, Y., Chen, J., Zhou, Q., et al. (2026) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2025.12.066 · Cited by 3
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“Although mRNA vaccines have made headway in the fight against COVID-19, long-term effects are yet unclear, and the long-term administration and storage of mRNA vaccines remain problematic since mRNAs are not stable at room temperature (Jackson et al. 2020b; Crommelin et al. 2021).”
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“These immune responses get the body ready to quickly respond to the actual virus if it is encountered in the future [6].”
Adjuvanted Protein Vaccines Boost RNA-Based Vaccines for Broader and More Potent Immune Responses
Kim, J., Davis, J., Berube, B. J., Duthie, M. S., Gray, S. A., & Carter, D. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13080797 · Cited by 3
“RNA is intrinsically a more fragile molecule compared to DNA or proteins and requires translocation into the cell cytosol in order to be translated into an effective antigen [9].”
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“4 This improved safety profile refers specifically to the absence of insertional mutagenesis risk, better control of dose and expression, and a lower incidence of vector-related adverse events as documented in previous clinical trials.”
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“Since the licensing of the original COVID-19 vaccines in 2020, several other vaccine candidates have been developed [4,5].”
BackgroundRecent Advances in mRNA-Based Vaccines Against Several Hepatitis Viruses
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“Both innate and adaptive immune responses identify the target protein [167].”
SARS-COV2 VARIANTS AND VACCINES MRNA SPIKES FIBONACCI NUMERICAL UA/CG METASTRUCTURES
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Opportunities in Therapeutic mRNA Stabilization: Sequence, Structure, Adjuvants and Vectors
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mRNA vaccines transform personalized lung cancer treatment
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mRNA Vaccines: Immunology and Present and Future Potential
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A multi-epitope self-amplifying mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine design using a reverse vaccinology approach
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Advancing Protein‐Coding RNA Engineering: From Structural Refinement to Biomedical Implementation
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Generation of mRNA Vaccine: An Analysis of Two Types of Vectors
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“This would be relevant in the advent of mRNA vaccines coming to fruition after decades of research [34] as they take advantage of proper peptide selection.”
BackgroundPersonalized vaccines, novel vaccination technologies, and future prospects
Vasudevan, S. S., Kandrikar, T. Y., Sayyed, A. A., Sridhar, S., Prasad, A., Khandelwal, S., Baniya, S., Miguela, C. A. C., & Gondaliya, P. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-18564-9.00024-2 · Cited by 2
mRNA Vaccines to Protect Against Diseases
Thomas, S., & Abraham, A. (2021) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-1884-4_5 · Cited by 2
Tung, H. Y. L. (2020) · doi:10.14293/s2199-1006.1.sor-.ppmh5lh.v1 · Cited by 2
“It must be noted that there has not been any clinical trials for mRNA vaccines targeting SARS-COV since the 2002-2004 SARS outbreak [15].”
BackgroundSARS-CoV2 Variants and Vaccines mRNA Spikes Fibonacci Numerical UA/CG MetastructuresPreprint
Perez, J. C. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202104.0034.v5 · Cited by 2
“» In (Jackson et al, 2020), we could read: «Last, codon optimization and modification of nucleotides have contributed to translation efficiency.”
BackgroundSARS-CoV2 Variants and Vaccines mRNA Spikes Fibonacci Numerical UA/CG MetastructuresPreprint
Perez, J. C. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202104.0034.v4 · Cited by 2
Engineered Liposomal Nanoparticles and Their Medical Applications
Mahmood, S., Arifin, M. A., & Hilles, A. R. (2025) · doi:10.1002/9781119792192.ch4 · Cited by 2
Application of the iPLUS non-coding sequence in improving biopharmaceuticals production
Reis-Claro, I., Silva, M. I., Moutinho, A., Garcia, B. C., Pereira‐Castro, I., & Moreira, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2024.1355957 · Cited by 1
A new frontier in cancer therapy: The intersection of cancer vaccines and metabolomics
Sukareh, F. A., Al-Nemi, R., Karagiannis, P., Asfour, H. N., Verma, A., Jaremko, M., & Emwas, A.-H. M. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15526-0.00009-3 · Cited by 1
Overview of the immune system and introduction to vaccines
Hillery, A. M. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-28934-7.00002-9 · Cited by 1
Next-Generation Nanoparticle-Enabled mRNA Vaccines in the Treatment of COVID-19
Kole, E. B., Jadhav, K., Singh, R., Verma, R. K., Chatterjee, A., & Naik, J. (2025) · Critical Reviews in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems · doi:10.1615/critrevtherdrugcarriersyst.2025053265 · Cited by 1
Pharmaceutical perspectives on oligonucleotide therapeutics and delivery systems
Staller, D. W., Gawargi, F. I., Panigrahi, S. S., Mishra, P. K., & Mahato, R. I. (2025) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.pharmr.2025.100065 · Cited by 1
Immunogenicity of neoantigens: From CAR-T cell to various vaccines
Davodabadi, F., Arabpour, J., Goleij, P., Mohammadi, E., Taheri, M., Sethi, G., Dua, K., & Sarhadi, M. (2025) · International Journal of Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2025.125924 · Cited by 1
Harnessing mRNA vaccines for viral diseases: bottleneck and breakthrough
Mishra, V. K., Ranjan, A., & Mishra, Y. (2025) · Exploration of Immunology · doi:10.37349/ei.2025.1003212 · Cited by 1
Saeed, T. S., Saeed, M. R., Abdullah, M. F., Qureshi, M. S., Saeed, A., Munawar, S., Saifullah, M., & Rana, I. (2025) · World Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.5497/wjp.v14.i1.110200 · Cited by 1
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Oyedele, T., Park, R., Morales, K., Jain, M., Sher, L., Vutikullird, A., Isaacs, A., Jepson, B. M., Shoemaker, K., Stanley, A. M., et al. (2026) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2026.128304 · Cited by 1
LNP-mRNA vaccines: Revolutionizing preventive medicine
Bhowmik, S., Kundu, S., Ghosh, S., Chowdhury, A. A., & Acharya, A. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-45006-8.00007-0 · Cited by 1
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“As an emerging method for delivering biological macromolecules, mRNA has demonstrated its significance in the vaccine sector [ 8 ].”
Design, Synthesis, and Proof-of-Concept Bioassay of an Encapsulated mRNA for Human Growth Hormone
Santiago, C. R., Quintanar‐Stephano, A., & Barrera-Saldaña, H. A. (2026) · Current Issues in Molecular Biology · doi:10.3390/cimb48070647 · Cited by 1
“Finally, in vitro transcription (IVT) provides unprecedented scalability, and since the manufacturing process is sequence-independent, the transition to manufacturing different therapeutic proteins simply requires the modification of the nucleotide sequence [38].”
Jamous, Y. F. (2026) · Pandemics · doi:10.3390/pandemics1020008 · Cited by 1
“Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), in particular, have been central to the delivery of nucleic acids, including those in mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines, which represented an important advancement in vaccine nanotechnology [13–15].”
Targeting a malaria merozoite surface protein with mRNA vaccine generates multifunctional antibodies
Thomas, A., Runz, T., Ho, T. K. C., Fabb, S. A., Lee, C. L., Chishimba, S., Mugan, R. S., Reiling, L., Kurtovic, L., D'souza, C. S., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1840217 · Cited by 1
“The mRNA-LNP vaccine formulations induce robust antibody responses with small doses for suf fi cient immunogenicity to various infectious diseases (24 – 27).”
mRNA Vaccine Review against COVID-19 with Potential Applications to Improve Efficacy and Targeting
Iqbal, M. S., & Mousa, S. A. (2021) · International Journal of Vaccines and Immunization · doi:10.16966/2470-9948.124 · Cited by 1
“Due to the potential of creating natural-borne antigens, lack of needing additional adjuvants, and more rapid preparation compared to traditional vaccines while avoiding risk of permanent DNA integration from DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines have great potential to improve vaccination production and efficacy [34-36].”
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A Review of mRNA Vaccines with the Aid of Lipid Nanoparticles
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Rational design of an EDIII mRNA vaccine candidate against Zika virus
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Intranasal and Inhaled Vaccines
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Will the mRNA Vaccines Interfere with One’s DNA?
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mRNA Vaccine: Determinants of Clinical Efficacy, and Optimization of Pharmacological Effects
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High DNA-Binding Affinity and Gene-Transfection Efficacy of Bioreducible Cationic Nanomicelles
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Metadata
- Authors
- Jackson, N. A. C., Kester, K. E., Casimiro, D., Gurunathan, S., & DeRosa, F.
- Affiliations
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (US)
- Sanofi (United States) (US)
- Translate Bio (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jackson, Nicholas A. C.
- Venue
- npj Vaccines
- Published
- 2020-02-04
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 11-11
- ISSN
- 2059-0105 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7000814
- OpenAlex
- W3004539389
- Cited by
- 498
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 28
- FWCI
- 8.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- npj Vaccines (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Interference and Gene Delivery
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Keywords
- mRNA vaccines, infectious disease prevention, mRNA delivery, vaccine production, translation efficiency, vaccine development, biotechnology industry, pharmaceutical industry
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