CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 17Chaos-based Image/Signal EncryptionComputer Science and EngineeringAdvanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques

A novel memristor-based hyperchaotic hybrid encryption system with DNA for image encryption on the Jetson TX2

Open access
Ulutas, Hasan·2025·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-21604-3PMC PMC12518665
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel hybrid image encryption scheme that combines a memristor-based hyperchaotic system, the Trivium stream cipher, DNA-inspired operations, and a lightweight 3DES layer into a tightly integrated multi-layer architecture. The memristor-based chaotic system ensures a large key space and complex dynamics, while the Trivium cipher enhances randomness, and the DNA operations introduce strong confusion and diffusion properties. The addition of 3DES further reinforces resistance against brute-force and structural attacks. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm: the information entropy of encrypted images approaches the ideal value (7.999), the correlation coefficients between adjacent pixels are reduced to nearly zero (≈ 0.001), and differential attack metrics achieve NPCR values above 99.58% and UACI values above 33%. Furthermore, the scheme exhibits robustness against data loss and noise (up to 20% salt-and-pepper noise) with minimal degradation in decrypted images. Hardware implementation on the NVIDIA Jetson TX2 confirms the practicality of the method for embedded and edge-computing environments. These results indicate that the proposed scheme provides a secure, efficient, and hardware-friendly solution for modern image encryption applications.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes a hybrid image encryption scheme combining a memristor-based hyperchaotic system, Trivium stream cipher, DNA-inspired operations, and lightweight 3DES, validated on an NVIDIA Jetson TX2. It reports near-ideal entropy, near-zero pixel correlations, strong differential-attack metrics, and robustness to data loss and noise.

Key findings

  • Encrypted images achieved entropy values above 7.996 across all RGB channels, with NPCR above 99.58% (highest 99.6332% for Military) and UACI between 33.41% and 33.66%.
  • Correlation coefficients between adjacent pixels in encrypted images were reduced to near zero, while original images showed high correlations such as 0.9246 horizontal in the Airplane green channel and 0.9400 vertical in the Airplane blue channel.
  • After Trivium processing, all NIST SP 800–22 tests yielded p-values above 0.01; FIPS 140–1 tests passed, and chi-square gave p ≈ 0.28480 with statistic ≈ 1.14406.
  • On the Jetson TX2, encryption times ranged from 0.2477 to 0.2583 s and decryption times from 0.2181 to 0.2383 s; decrypted images retained structure under up to 1/4 data loss and 20% salt-and-pepper noise.

Methods

  • The encryption pipeline uses a memristor-based hyperchaotic circuit adopted from Sahin et al., Trivium with an 80-bit secret key and 80-bit initialization vector, extended DNA encoding with crossover/mutation, and a lightweight 3DES layer.
  • Experiments used four 256 × 256 × 3 RGB test images—Airplane, Military, Triple Airplane, and Kaan—evaluated with histogram, correlation, NPCR, UACI, MSE, PSNR, SSIM, entropy, key space, and noise/data-loss analyses.
  • Hardware validation was performed on an NVIDIA Jetson TX2, with desktop experiments implemented in Python and MATLAB on an Intel Core i7-9700K, 16 GB RAM, Windows 10 64-bit, in a non-GPU environment.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the multi-layer architecture and DNA-based operations introduce additional computational overhead, resulting in longer encryption/decryption times than some lightweight alternatives and potentially restricting ultra-low-latency deployment.
  • The paper states future work is needed for additional dynamical evaluations such as spectral entropy, C₀ complexity, and permutation entropy, as well as optimization for real-time video, FPGA/GPU acceleration, and IoT adaptations.
  • Evident from the text: the security evaluation is limited to four 256 × 256 × 3 RGB images, with noise and data-loss tests shown only for the Kaan image; no video or larger-image results are reported.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41598-025-21604-3

Cites

62 of 62 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

11 of 20 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisereasoning

    Chaotic systems are highly suitable for cryptographic applications because of their extreme sensitivity to initial conditions, long-term unpredictability, and strong pseudorandomness.

    “Chaotic systems are characterised by their extreme sensitivity to initial conditions and system parameters, resulting in extreme complexity, deterministic and nonlinear characteristics. These properties render chaotic systems highly suitable for cryptographic applications”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim4 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [6] Qian, X. et al. A novel color image encryption algorithm based on three-dimensional chaotic maps and reconstruction techniques. IEEE Access 9, 61334–61345. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3073514 (2021). source
    • cites [7] Feng, W., He, Y., Li, H. & Li, C. A plain-image-related chaotic image encryption algorithm based on DNA sequence operation and discrete logarithm. IEEE Access 7, 181589–181609. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2959137 (2019). source
    • cites [8] Zhou, S. A quantum image encryption method based on dnacnot. IEEE Access 8, 178336–178344. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3027964 (2020). source

      The ICMIC section (page unavailable) describes a chaotic map whose sequences are useful for the proposed encryption method, and the Key Sensitivity Analysis reports that small key changes prevent decryption. The paper does not state the broader claim that chaotic systems generally are suitable for cryptography because of long-term unpredictability, strong pseudorandomness, or deterministic and nonlinear characteristics. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [9] Liu, Q. & Liu, L. Color image encryption algorithm based on DNA coding and double chaos system. IEEE Access 8, 83596–83610. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2991420 (2020). source
    • cites [10] Wu, X., Wang, K., Wang, X., Kan, H. & Kurths, J. Color image DNA encryption using NCA map-based CML and one-time keys. Signal Process. 148, 272–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SIGPRO.2018.02.028 (2018). source
    • cites [11] Song, C. Y., Qiao, Y. L. & Zhang, X. Z. An image encryption scheme based on new spatiotemporal chaos. Optik – Int. J. Light Electron Opt. 124(18), 3329–3334. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJLEO.2012.11.002 (2013). source
  • Premisecitation

    For a well-encrypted image, correlation values close to zero signify a lack of statistical dependence and support the claim of randomness in the encrypted output.

    “For a well-encrypted image, the resulting correlation values should be close to zero, which signifies a lack of statistical dependence and supports the claim of randomness in the encrypted output 30 ,54.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [30] M. E. Sahin, “Memristive chaotic system-based hybrid image encryption application with AES and RSA algorithms,” Phys Scr, 98, 7, 075216 https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ACDBA0 (2023). source
    • cites [54] Şahin, M. E. Memristor-based hyperchaotic system and DNA encoding based image encryption application on LabVIEW. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 15(1), 269–276 (2023). source

      The available Abstract (page not given) says that correlation analysis was used as a security test, but it does not say what correlation values indicate. Searches for near-zero correlation, statistical dependence, and adjacent-pixel correlation found no passage explaining the claimed relationship to randomness. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    The proposed scheme achieves UACI values above 33% in differential attack metrics.

    “UACI values above 33%”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The proposed scheme achieves NPCR values above 99.58% in differential attack metrics.

    “differential attack metrics achieve NPCR values above 99.58%”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The scheme exhibits robustness against data loss and noise up to 20% salt-and-pepper noise with minimal degradation in decrypted images.

    “the scheme exhibits robustness against data loss and noise (up to 20% salt-and-pepper noise) with minimal degradation in decrypted images.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
  • May combine two claims. 46

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Trivium initializes a 288-bit internal state using an 80-bit secret key and an 80-bit initialization vector.

    “The algorithm operates by initializing a 288-bit internal state using an 80-bit secret key and an 80-bit initialization vector (IV)41,42.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [41] C. De Cannière, “Trivium: A Stream Cipher Construction Inspired by Block Cipher Design Principles,” Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 4176 LNCS, 171–186, https://doi.org/10.1007/11836810_13 (2006). source
    • cites [42] A. S. Demirkol, M. E. Sahin, B. Karakaya, H. Ulutas, A. Ascoli, and R. Tetzlaff, “Real time hybrid medical image encryption algorithm combining memristor-based chaos with DNA coding,” Chaos Solitons Fractals, 183,114923, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHAOS.2024.114923 (2024). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    3DES has a lightweight structure, wide compatibility, and ease of implementation on embedded hardware.

    “In this work, 3DES is adopted instead of modern symmetric algorithms such as AES or SM4 due to its lightweight structure, wide compatibility, and ease of implementation on embedded hardware.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [47] Hamza, M., Baig, M., Burhan, H., Haq, U. & Habib, W. A Comparative Analysis of AES, RSA, and 3DES Encryption Standards based on Speed and Performance. Management Science Advances 1(1), 20–30. https://doi.org/10.31181/MSA1120244 (2024). source

      The available Abstract says the paper compares AES, RSA, and 3DES, but does not describe 3DES as lightweight, widely compatible, or easy to implement on embedded hardware. Searches for those properties and for embedded hardware returned only the Abstract and References, not a passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [48] Aleisa, N. A Comparison of the 3DES and AES Encryption Standards. International Journal of Security and Its Applications 9(7), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijsia.2015.9.7.21 (2015). source

      Section 3.3 (page unavailable) says 3DES is easy to implement, efficient in hardware, and compatible with single DES for legacy purposes. It does not establish wide compatibility or ease of implementation specifically on embedded hardware. Sections 3.4 and 4 (pages unavailable) say AES outperforms 3DES and that 3DES encryption takes longer, undercutting the claimed lightweight advantage over AES. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    In the proposed scheme, 3DES serves as a complementary symmetric layer that reinforces resistance against brute-force and structural attacks while maintaining computational feasibility for resource-constrained platforms.

    “In this context, 3DES serves as a complementary symmetric layer that reinforces resistance against brute-force and structural attacks while maintaining computational feasibility for resource-constrained platforms47,48.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [47] Hamza, M., Baig, M., Burhan, H., Haq, U. & Habib, W. A Comparative Analysis of AES, RSA, and 3DES Encryption Standards based on Speed and Performance. Management Science Advances 1(1), 20–30. https://doi.org/10.31181/MSA1120244 (2024). source

      The Abstract (page not provided) says the paper compares AES, RSA, and 3DES, including performance, but does not say that 3DES is a complementary layer in a scheme. Searches for brute-force and structural attacks, and for computational feasibility on resource-constrained platforms, found no passage addressing those claims. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [48] Aleisa, N. A Comparison of the 3DES and AES Encryption Standards. International Journal of Security and Its Applications 9(7), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijsia.2015.9.7.21 (2015). source

      Section 3.3 says 3DES was developed to address the meet-in-the-middle weakness of Double DES and is efficient in hardware, supporting part of the security and feasibility rationale. But it does not describe 3DES as a complementary layer in the proposed scheme; it also says 3DES is not particularly efficient in software, while the Conclusions identify AES—not 3DES—as efficient on small devices. Section 4 describes 3DES as vulnerable to differential and linear cryptanalysis, so the claimed resistance to structural attacks is overstated. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The combination of high NPCR and UACI with low PSNR and SSIM values confirms that the proposed hybrid encryption algorithm ensures both strong security and effective visual obfuscation, making it well-suited for applications requiring high confidentiality in image transmission and storage.

    “In conclusion, the combination of high NPCR (ideally close to 99.6%,56) and UACI (ideally close to 33.46%,56) with low PSNR and SSIM values confirms that the proposed hybrid encryption algorithm ensures both strong security and effective visual obfuscation, making it well-suited for applications requiring high confidentiality in image transmission and storage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Ogras, H. 2021 An efficient color image encryption scheme based on a matrix scrambling method and a new hybrid chaotic map”. Cogent Eng https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2021.1940638 (2021). source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.
    • Rests on an assumption: Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, reflecting greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The decrypted images successfully restore the original content without perceptual distortion, demonstrating the algorithm's reversibility and accuracy.

    “Meanwhile, the decrypted images successfully restore the original content without perceptual distortion, demonstrating the algorithm’s reversibility and accuracy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Airplane image has a horizontal correlation coefficient of 0.9246 in the green channel and a vertical correlation coefficient of 0.9400 in the blue channel.

    “For instance, the Airplane (AP) image demonstrates horizontal correlation coefficients as high as 0.9246 in the green channel and 0.9400 in vertical correlation for the blue channel, indicating strong pixel-to-pixel dependency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The encrypted images appear visually unrecognizable and noise-like, confirming the ability of the proposed algorithm to obscure spatial features.

    “As shown, the encrypted images appear visually unrecognizable and noise-like, confirming the ability of the proposed algorithm to obscure spatial features.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The chi-square test on the Trivium-enhanced sequence yielded a p-value of approximately 0.285 and a chi-square statistic of approximately 1.14.

    “Moreover, the chi-square test yielded a p-value of approximately 0.285, significantly above the critical threshold of 0.01, and a very low chi-square statistic (≈ 1.14), indicating a well-distributed and uniform binary pattern.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After applying the Trivium stream cipher, all NIST SP 800-22 test results improved and every test yielded a p-value above 0.01.

    “However, after applying the Trivium stream cipher, all test results showed significant improvement, with every test yielding a p-value above the 0.01 threshold.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Chi-square values for the proposed cryptosystem were 251.77 for Airplane, 232.13 for Military, 246.86 for Kaan, and 273.89 for Triple Airplane.

    “For the proposed cryptosystem, the Chi-square values were calculated as 251.77 for the Airplane image, 232.13 for the Military image, 246.86 for the Kaan image, and 273.89 for the Triple Airplane image.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Under the selected parameters, the system demonstrates multiple positive Lyapunov exponents and rich topological structures in phase space.

    “Under these parameters, the system demonstrates multiple positive Lyapunov exponents, a hallmark of hyperchaotic systems, and rich topological structures in phase space.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The Trivium cipher enhances the randomness of the chaotic sequences.

    “the Trivium cipher enhances randomness”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The presence of multiple bifurcations and dense, scattered points at higher C1 values confirms deterministic chaos and high sensitivity to initial conditions.

    “The presence of multiple bifurcations and dense, scattered points at higher C1 values confirms the existence of deterministic chaos and high sensitivity to initial conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Scatter plots show original image pixel clusters tightly aligned along the diagonal and encrypted image plots as widely scattered point clouds.

    “While the original image plots show pixel clusters tightly aligned along the diagonal (reflecting high correlation), the encrypted image plots appear as widely scattered point clouds, indicating statistical independence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    NPCR values for all test images are consistently above 99.58%, with the highest being 99.6332% for the Military image.

    “NPCR (Number of Pixel Change Rate) values for all test images are consistently above 99.58%, with the highest being 99.6332% for the Military image.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The Airplane image shows a blue channel entropy of only 6.22, suggesting pixel intensity redundancy.

    “Similarly, the Airplane image shows a blue channel entropy of only 6.22, suggesting pixel intensity redundancy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    SSIM values are close to zero, ranging between 0.0072 and 0.0185, indicating that the encrypted images share minimal structural similarity with their corresponding plaintext images.

    “SSIM (Structural Similarity Index) values are also close to zero, ranging between 0.0072 and 0.0185, indicating that the encrypted images share minimal structural similarity with their corresponding plaintext images.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed method achieves an entropy value of 7.9973, which is very close to the theoretical ideal of 8 and comparable to the best results reported in the literature.

    “As summarized in Table 9, the proposed method achieves an entropy value of 7.9973, which is very close to the theoretical ideal of 8 and comparable to the best results reported in the literature (e.g.,20,29).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20] Wang, Y., Su, P., Wang, Z. & Sun, J. Dynamic analysis of high dimensional HNN with logistic-based memristors and application in military image encryption. Chaos Solitons Fractals 199, 116868. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHAOS.2025.116868 (2025). source
    • cites [29] Belete, B. A., Gelmecha, D. J. & Singh, R. S. Enhancing colour image encryption through parameters optimization of memristive hyperchaotic system with CPSO algorithm and LSAIM. Imaging Sci. J. https://doi.org/10.1080/13682199.2025.2454055 (2025). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The algorithm achieved near-ideal entropy values (~7.997) and low correlation coefficients (close to zero) across all directions and color channels.

    “In particular, the algorithm achieved near-ideal entropy values (~ 7.997) and low correlation coefficients (close to zero) across all directions and color channels, outperforming several recent approaches reported in the literature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Given the computational precision of 10^-15, the chaotic component alone yields a precision value of approximately 10^210, which is greater than 2^100 under normal conditions.

    “Given the computational precision of 10−15 when the initial key space is expressed in formula form58, the chaotic component alone yields a precision value of approximately 10210, which is greater than 2100 under normal conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Li, Q. & Chen, L. An image encryption algorithm based on 6-dimensional hyper chaotic system and DNA encoding. Multimed Tools Appl. 83(2), 5351–5368. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11042-023-15550-3/FIGURES/7 (2024). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    MSE values are all around 105, reflecting a substantial difference between the original and encrypted images in pixel-level content.

    “MSE (Mean Squared Error) values are all around 105, reflecting a substantial difference between the original and encrypted images in terms of pixel-level content.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Encryption times range from 0.2477 to 0.2583 s, while decryption times are between 0.2181 and 0.2383 s.

    “Encryption times range from 0.2477 to 0.2583 s, while decryption times are slightly lower, between 0.2181 and 0.2383 s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The embedded nature of the TX2 platform enables all encryption and decryption processes to be executed directly on-device without reliance on external cloud resources, minimizing communication latency and enhancing data confidentiality.

    “The embedded nature of the TX2 platform enables all encryption and decryption processes to be executed directly on-device without reliance on external cloud resources, thereby minimizing communication latency and enhancing overall data confidentiality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The Trivium-enhanced hyperchaotic sequence is random and cryptographically suitable.

    “These results further validate the randomness and cryptographic suitability of the Trivium-enhanced hyperchaotic sequence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The parallel computing capabilities of the Pascal GPU and the efficient memory bandwidth of the TX2 significantly accelerate matrix-based operations and bit-level manipulations in the encryption pipeline, reducing execution time and improving scalability.

    “Moreover, the parallel computing capabilities of the Pascal GPU and the efficient memory bandwidth of the TX2 significantly accelerate matrix-based operations and bit-level manipulations inherent in the encryption pipeline. This results in reduced execution time and improved scalability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The addition of 3DES reinforces resistance against brute-force and structural attacks.

    “The addition of 3DES further reinforces resistance against brute-force and structural attacks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The DNA operations introduce strong confusion and diffusion properties.

    “the DNA operations introduce strong confusion and diffusion properties”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed scheme provides a secure, efficient, and hardware-friendly solution for modern image encryption applications.

    “These results indicate that the proposed scheme provides a secure, efficient, and hardware-friendly solution for modern image encryption applications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The Chi-square values lie within an acceptable range and confirm that the ciphertext histograms are close to the ideal uniform distribution.

    “These values, all lying within an acceptable range, confirm that the ciphertext histograms are close to the ideal uniform distribution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed algorithm expands the key space and reduces predictability.

    “the algorithm not only expands the key space and reduces predictability”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Existing hybrid chaos–DNA–3DES encryption algorithms often suffer from limitations such as restricted DNA coding rules, a relatively narrow key space, or the uniform application of chaotic maps.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    3DES is a symmetric block cipher that operates on 64-bit blocks of plaintext and applies the DES algorithm three consecutive times.

    “Triple DES, commonly referred to as 3DES, was introduced as an enhancement to the original DES algorithm 46. It is a symmetric block cipher that operates on 64-bit blocks of plaintext. To strengthen the security of standard DES, the encryption process in 3DES involves applying the DES algorithm three consecutive times”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] H. Dibas and K. E. Sabri, “A comprehensive performance empirical study of the symmetric algorithms:AES, 3DES, Blowfish and Twofish,” 2021 International Conference on Information Technology, ICIT 2021 - Proceedings, pp. 344–349, Jul. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIT52682.2021.9491644. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed method addresses the shortcomings of existing hybrid chaos-DNA-3DES algorithms by integrating multiple chaotic maps, employing dynamic DNA coding strategies, and ensuring tight integration with 3DES.

    “The proposed method in this study addresses these shortcomings by integrating multiple chaotic maps, employing dynamic DNA coding strategies, and ensuring tight integration with 3DES.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Existing hybrid chaos–DNA–3DES encryption algorithms often suffer from limitations such as restricted DNA coding rules, a relatively narrow key space, or the uniform application of chaotic maps.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed algorithm achieves higher levels of security and performance compared with conventional approaches.

    “achieves higher levels of security and performance compared with conventional approaches”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Existing hybrid chaos–DNA–3DES encryption algorithms often suffer from limitations such as restricted DNA coding rules, a relatively narrow key space, or the uniform application of chaotic maps.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The memristor-based chaotic system ensures a large key space and complex dynamics.

    “The memristor-based chaotic system ensures a large key space and complex dynamics”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The Jetson TX2 efficiently handles the process, making the system suitable for real-time or near real-time image protection in resource-constrained environments.

    “The Jetson TX2 efficiently handles the process, making the system suitable for real-time or near real-time image protection in resource-constrained environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Collectively, the results confirm that the proposed method not only meets but in several aspects exceeds the performance criteria required for secure and reliable image encryption systems, making it a promising candidate for fields such as medical data protection, surveillance, and low-power embedded devices.

    “Collectively, these results confirm that the proposed method not only meets but in several aspects exceeds the performance criteria required for secure and reliable image encryption systems, making it a promising candidate for fields such as medical data protection, surveillance, and low-power embedded devices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.
    • Rests on an assumption: Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, reflecting greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The UACI results confirm that average intensity differences between ciphertexts are significant, contributing to the unpredictability of the encrypted data.

    “These results confirm that the average intensity differences between ciphertexts are significant, further contributing to the unpredictability of the encrypted data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The encrypted entropy values are remarkably close to the ideal value of 8, indicating that the proposed encryption algorithm effectively transforms the image into a random, structureless form.

    “These results are remarkably close to the ideal value of 8, indicating that the proposed encryption algorithm effectively transforms the image into a random, structureless form.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: For an 8-bit grayscale image, the ideal entropy value is 8 bits, implying that all 256 grayscale levels occur with equal probability and the encrypted image is maximally unpredictable.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This trade-off strengthens confusion and diffusion but may restrict deployment in scenarios requiring ultra-low latency.

    “This trade-off strengthens confusion and diffusion but may restrict deployment in scenarios requiring ultra-low latency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Military image's low entropy values are expected given its large regions of uniform color.

    “For instance, the Military image exhibits relatively low entropy values—6.08 (R) and 5.85 (B)—which is expected given its large regions of uniform color (e.g., snowy background).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The moderate runtime is acceptable given the multi-layered structure of the proposed scheme, which integrates chaotic sequence generation, DNA operations, and 3DES encryption.

    “This moderate runtime is considered acceptable given the multi-layered structure of the proposed scheme, which integrates chaotic sequence generation, DNA operations, and 3DES encryption.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The high entropy values confirm that the encrypted outputs are statistically unpredictable and thus resistant to entropy-based attacks.

    “Such high entropy values confirm that the encrypted outputs are statistically unpredictable and thus resistant to entropy-based attacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed hybrid encryption framework presents a secure, flexible, and efficient solution for modern image protection.

    “In conclusion, the proposed hybrid encryption framework presents a secure, flexible, and efficient solution for modern image protection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.
    • Rests on an assumption: Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, reflecting greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The entropy analysis demonstrates that the hybrid encryption scheme provides robust diffusion and randomness, ensuring strong protection against information leakage through statistical analysis.

    “The entropy analysis demonstrates that the hybrid encryption scheme provides robust diffusion and randomness, ensuring strong protection against information leakage through statistical analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such a vast key space makes exhaustive search computationally infeasible, thereby providing a fundamental layer of protection for sensitive data.

    “Such a vast key space makes exhaustive search computationally infeasible, thereby providing a fundamental layer of protection for sensitive data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed method demonstrates strong robustness against both partial data loss and noise attacks.

    “In summary, the proposed method demonstrates strong robustness against both partial data loss and noise attacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The encryption time of approximately 0.25 s is consistent with the theoretical analysis and demonstrates efficiency for real-time applications.

    “The method completed the encryption process in approximately 0.25 s (a 256 × 256 color test image), which is consistent with the theoretical analysis and demonstrates its efficiency for real-time applications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The high NPCR values indicate excellent diffusion properties, making the system highly resistant to differential attacks.

    “Such high NPCR values indicate excellent diffusion properties, making the system highly resistant to differential attacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The DNA-based confusion and diffusion layer distributes small changes across the entire cipher image, ensuring that if part of a block is lost, the impact remains localized during decryption, minimizing catastrophic failure.

    “First, the DNA-based confusion and diffusion layer distributes small changes across the entire cipher image, which ensures that even if part of a block is lost, the impact remains localized during decryption, minimizing catastrophic failure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The high NPCR values demonstrate the algorithm's high sensitivity to small plaintext changes, ensuring that a single-pixel modification results in widespread ciphertext changes.

    “This demonstrates the algorithm’s high sensitivity to small changes in the plaintext, ensuring that even a single-pixel modification results in widespread changes in the ciphertext.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    By combining memristor-driven hyperchaotic dynamics, bio-inspired DNA operations, and lightweight cryptographic primitives, it ensures strong security performance and resilience under diverse attack models.

    “By combining memristor-driven hyperchaotic dynamics, bio-inspired DNA operations, and lightweight cryptographic primitives, it ensures strong security performance and resilience under diverse attack models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.
    • Rests on an assumption: A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.
    • Rests on an assumption: Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, reflecting greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.
    • Rests on an assumption: Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.
    • Rests on an assumption: A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The remaining steps-diffusion, DNA encoding/decoding, crossover and mutation, and lightweight 3DES encryption-all scale linearly with the image size.

    “The remaining steps—namely diffusion (O(N)), DNA encoding/decoding (O(N)), crossover and mutation (O(N) + O(m), where m denotes the number of mutation iterations), and the lightweight 3DES encryption (O(N)) all scale linearly with the image size.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The 3DES block structure provides natural redundancy, since each block is processed independently, allowing correct recovery of unaffected blocks.

    “Second, the 3DES block structure provides natural redundancy, since each block is processed independently, allowing correct recovery of unaffected blocks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Experimental evaluations under salt-and-pepper noise and random data loss up to 20% confirm that decrypted images retain structural integrity with only minimal distortion, demonstrating that the algorithm is robust against partial corruption and suitable for deployment in unreliable communication environments.

    “Experimental evaluations under salt-and-pepper noise and random data loss (up to 20%) confirm that decrypted images retain structural integrity with only minimal distortion, demonstrating that the algorithm is robust against partial corruption and suitable for deployment in unreliable communication environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results demonstrate that the approach provides a good balance between security performance and efficiency, making it competitive with state-of-the-art methods while maintaining practical feasibility on embedded hardware.

    “The results demonstrate that our approach provides a good balance between security performance and efficiency, making it competitive with state-of-the-art methods while maintaining practical feasibility on embedded hardware.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
55 of 55

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Conventional image encryption algorithms such as AES, DES and RSA are no longer adequate for image encryption because of the high redundancy of images and the strong correlation between adjacent pixels.

    “It is evident that conventional image encryption algorithms, such as AES, DES and RSA, are no longer adequate for the purpose of image encryption due to the high redundancy of images and the strong correlation between adjacent pixels.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Existing hybrid chaos–DNA–3DES encryption algorithms often suffer from limitations such as restricted DNA coding rules, a relatively narrow key space, or the uniform application of chaotic maps.

    “Existing hybrid chaos–DNA–3DES encryption algorithms, although effective, often suffer from certain limitations such as restricted DNA coding rules, a relatively narrow key space, or the uniform application of chaotic maps.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A correlation coefficient close to zero in an encrypted image indicates disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.

    “A correlation coefficient {r}_{xy} close to zero indicates weak or no correlation, which is a desirable property in encrypted images, as it confirms the disruption of predictable pixel relationships and strengthens resistance to statistical attacks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.

    “A high NPCR value reflects strong diffusion properties, meaning that the impact of a small change is propagated throughout the entire image.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, reflecting greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.

    “Higher UACI values indicate a more robust encryption process, as they reflect greater average pixel deviation due to minor input changes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.

    “Lower PSNR implies that the encrypted image is highly distorted compared to the original, making reverse engineering or visual interpretation difficult for attackers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A higher entropy value signifies greater randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks discernible structure and offers enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.

    “A higher entropy value signifies a greater degree of randomness, indicating that the encrypted data lacks any discernible structure—thus offering enhanced protection against statistical and cryptanalytic attacks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For an 8-bit grayscale image, the ideal entropy value is 8 bits, implying that all 256 grayscale levels occur with equal probability and the encrypted image is maximally unpredictable.

    “For an 8-bit grayscale image, the ideal entropy value is 8 bits, which implies that all 256 grayscale levels (ranging from 0 to 255) occur with equal probability. When this condition is met, the encrypted image is considered maximally unpredictable.”
8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Correlation range excludes reported table values

    Minor

    The stated upper limit of approximately 0.0247 is exceeded by the Military image's encrypted vertical correlation of 0.0570. Table 5 also reports several other encrypted correlations above 0.0247.

  • Longest-run result conflicts with runs-test counts

    Minor

    Table 3 reports that the longest sequence of identical bits was one bit, but its runs-test results count runs of lengths two through six or more.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Ulutas, H.
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-10-13
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
35745-35745
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-025-21604-3
PMC
PMC12518665
OpenAlex
W4415127199
Semantic Scholar
02aacdb421e8bc9b41597b603bbf5757ab04317d
Cited by
17
References
60
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 1
FWCI
6.20
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Computer Science and Engineering
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Keywords
image encryption, memristors, hyperchaotic systems, Trivium stream cipher, 3DES, hybrid encryption, NVIDIA Jetson TX2, edge computing, hardware implementation, NPCR and UACI, noise robustness

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-21.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-21.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review