Sustainability of artisanal mining of cobalt in DR Congo
Open accessAbstract
The sustainability of cobalt is an important emerging issue because this critical base metal is an essential component of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. More than half the world's cobalt mine production comes from the Katanga Copperbelt in DR Congo, with a substantial proportion (estimated at 15-20%) being extracted by artisanal miners. Here we show, in a case study performed in the town of Kolwezi, that people living in a neighbourhood that had been transformed into an artisanal cobalt mine, had much higher levels of cobalt in urine and blood than people living in a nearby control area. The differences were most pronounced for children, in whom we also found evidence of exposure-related oxidative DNA damage. It was already known that industrial mining and processing of metals have led to severe environmental pollution in the region. This field study provides novel and robust empirical evidence that the artisanal extraction of cobalt that prevails in the DR Congo may cause toxic harm to vulnerable communities. This strengthens the conclusion that the currently existing cobalt supply chain is not sustainable.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The extensive exploitation of Li resources raises concerns about its environmental impacts.
“While the primary aim of using Li in electric vehicles is to improve the sustainability of transportation (Agrawal and Rajapatel 2020, Wang et al 2023), the extensive exploitation of Li resources, raises concerns about its environmental impacts (Agusdinata et al 2018, Banza Lubaba Nkulu et al 2018).”
From Environmental impacts of lithium supply chains from Australia to China (2024) · cites this paper as Banza Lubaba Nkulu et al 2018
The Abstract and Discussion link cobalt to lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles and document environmental degradation from cobalt mining in DR Congo. They do not examine exploitation of lithium resources or its environmental impacts; the source supports the concern for a related battery material, not Li itself. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity
Grandjean, P., & Landrigan, P. J. (2014) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70278-3 · Cited by 1,886 · see citing works
Olivetti, E. A., Ceder, G., Gaustad, G. G., & Fu, X. (2017) · Joule · doi:10.1016/j.joule.2017.08.019 · Cited by 1,572 · see citing works
CONTESTED TERRAIN: Mining and the Environment
Bridge, G. (2004) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163434 · Cited by 669 · see citing works
Gibb, H. J., & O’Leary, K. G. (2014) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1307864 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Children's health and the environment: public health issues and challenges for risk assessment.
Landrigan, P. J., Kimmel, C. A., Correa, A., & Eskenazi, B. (2003) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.6115 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Banza, C. L. N., Nawrot, T. S., Haufroid, V., Decrée, S., Putter, T. D., Smolders, E., Kabyla, B. I., Luboya, O. N., Ilunga, A., Mutombo, A. M., et al. (2009) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2009.04.012 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Self-citationA dangerous bet: The challenges of formalizing artisanal mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Geenen, S. (2012) · Resources Policy · doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.02.004 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
A review of the health hazards posed by cobalt
Paustenbach, D. J., Tvermoes, B. E., Unice, K. M., Finley, B. L., & Kerger, B. D. (2013) · Critical Reviews in Toxicology · doi:10.3109/10408444.2013.779633 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Hilson, G. M., Hilson, A. E., Maconachie, R., et al. (2017) · Geoforum · doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.05.004 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Dooyema, C., Neri, A., Lo, Y., Durant, J. T., Dargan, P. I., Swarthout, T. D., Biya, O., Gidado, S., Haladu, S., Sani-Gwarzo, N., et al. (2011) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1103965 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
8‐hydroxydeoxyguanosine as a urinary biomarker of oxidative DNA damage
Loft, S. H., Fischer‐Nielsen, A., Jeding, I. B., Vistisen, K. K., & Poulsen, H. E. (1993) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287399309531806 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Nisse, C., Tagne-Fotso, R., Howsam, M., et al. (2016) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.09.020 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Hoet, P., Jacquerye, C., Deumer, G., Lison, D., & Haufroid, V. (2013) · Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (CCLM) · doi:10.1515/cclm-2012-0688 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationBarregård, L., Möller, P., Henriksen, T., Mistry, V., Koppen, G., Rössner, P., Šrám, R. J., Weimann, A., Poulsen, H. E., Nataf, R., et al. (2012) · Antioxidants and Redox Signaling · doi:10.1089/ars.2012.4714 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Pathways of human exposure to cobalt in Katanga, a mining area of the D.R. Congo
Cheyns, K., Nkulu, C. B. L., Ngombe, L. K., et al. (2014) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.014 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Human exposure to uranium in groundwater
Orloff, K. G., Mistry, K., Charp, P. A., et al. (2003) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/s0013-9351(03)00115-4 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Schmidt, T., Buchert, M., & Schebek, L. (2016) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.04.017 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Creatinine adjustment of biological monitoring results
Cocker, J., Mason, H. J., Warren, N. D., et al. (2011) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqr084 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Tracking the Metal of the Goblins: Cobalt’s Cycle of Use
Harper, E. M., Kavlak, G., & Graedel, T. E. (2011) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es201874e · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Hao, Z., Li, Y., Li, H., Wei, B., Liao, X., Liang, T., & Yu, J. (2015) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.01.057 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Squadrone, S., Burioli, E. A. V., Monaco, G., et al. (2016) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.167 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The neurotoxicology of uranium.
Dinocourt, C., Legrand, M., Dublineau, I., & Lestaevel, P. (2015) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2015.08.004 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Milési, J.-P., Toteu, S. F., Deschamps, Y., et al. (2006) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.016 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Blood Manganese as an Exposure Biomarker: State of the Evidence
Baker, M. G., Simpson, C. D., Stover, B. D., et al. (2013) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene · doi:10.1080/15459624.2013.852280 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Work and Masculinity in Katanga's Artisanal Mines
Cuvelier, J. (2014) · Africa Spectrum · doi:10.1177/000203971404900201 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Sughis, M., Nawrot, T. S., Haufroid, V., et al. (2012) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1104678 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationIdentification of hazards in the workplaces of Artisanal mining in Katanga
Elenge, M. M., & Brouwer, C. D. (2011) · International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health · doi:10.2478/s13382-011-0012-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Biological monitoring of workers exposed to cobalt metal, salt, oxides, and hard metal dust.
Lison, D., Buchet, J. P., Swennen, B., et al. (1994) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.51.7.447 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Trefon, T. (2016) · Zed Books · doi:10.5040/9781350219328 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Mees, F., Masalehdani, M. N.-N., Putter, T. D., et al. (2012) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2012.09.008 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Child labour, agency and family dynamics
Andre, G., & Godin, M. (2013) · Childhood · doi:10.1177/0907568213488966 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Biomonitoring a human population inhabiting nearby a deactivated uranium mine
Lourenço, J., Pereira, R., Pinto, F. J., et al. (2013) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2013.01.011 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Lison, D. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-59453-2.00034-2 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
New integer programming models for tactical and strategicunderground production scheduling
King, B., Goycoolea, M., & Newman, A. M. (2017) · Mining Engineering · doi:10.19150/me.7360 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cobalt mineral exploration and supply from 1995 through 2013
Wilburn, D. R. (2011) · Scientific investigations report · doi:10.3133/sir20115084 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Congo's environmental paradox potential and predation in a land of plenty
Trefon, T. (2016) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Putter, T. D., Decrée, S., Banza, C. L. N., et al. (2016) · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Certifier les ressources minérales dans la région des Grands Lacs
Putter, T. D., & Delvaux, C. (2013) · Politique étrangère · doi:10.3917/pe.132.0099 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [26]ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) 2015 TLVs® and BEIs®. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents. Biological Exposure Indices 2015
- [27]Lison D Cobalt Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals (4th Edition). Volume II: Specific Metals Nordberg GF Fowler BA Nordberg M Academic Press - Elsevier 2015 743 763
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles
Harper, G., Sommerville, R., Kendrick, E., Driscoll, L., Slater, P., Stolkin, R., Walton, A., Christensen, P., Heidrich, O., Lambert, S., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 · Cited by 3,890 · see citing works
Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries
Ciez, R. E., & Whitacre, J. F. (2019) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5 · Cited by 965 · see citing works
Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries
Xu, C., Dai, Q., Gaines, L., Hu, M., Tukker, A., & Steubing, B. (2020) · Communications Materials · doi:10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x · Cited by 898 · see citing works
Watari, T., McLellan, B. C., Giurco, D., Dominish, E., Yamasue, E., & Nansai, K. (2019) · Resources, Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.05.015 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Reducing cobalt from lithium-ion batteries for the electric vehicle era
Ryu, H.-H., Sun, H. H., Myung, S.-T., Yoon, C. S., & Sun, Y.-K. (2021) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d0ee03581e · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Gutsch, M., & Leker, J. (2024) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122132 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Digitalization and the Anthropocene
Creutzig, F., Acemoglu, D., Bai, X., Edwards, P. N., Hintz, M. J., Kaack, L. H., Kilkis, S., Kunkel, S., Luers, A., Milojevic-Dupont, N., et al. (2022) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-120920-100056 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Quantifying the life-cycle health impacts of a cobalt-containing lithium-ion battery
Arvidsson, R., Chordia, M., & Nordelöf, A. (2022) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-022-02084-3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Environmental impacts of lithium supply chains from Australia to China
Feng, Y., Wang, P., Li, W., Zhang, Q., Chen, W.-Q., & Feng, D. (2024) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ad69ac · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“While the primary aim of using Li in electric vehicles is to improve the sustainability of transportation (Agrawal and Rajapatel 2020, Wang et al 2023), the extensive exploitation of Li resources, raises concerns about its environmental impacts (Agusdinata et al 2018, Banza Lubaba Nkulu et al 2018).”
Sustainable AI: Emerging Trends, Impacts, and Future Challenges
Philipo, A. G., Ning, H., Sarwatt, D. S., Mohamed, J. A., Yusufu, A. S., Shi, F., Urenje, S., & Ding, J. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Computing · doi:10.1109/tsusc.2025.3611272 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
- Authors
- Banza Lubaba Nkulu, C., Casas, L., Haufroid, V., De Putter, T., Saenen, N. D., Kayembe-Kitenge, T., Musa Obadia, P., Kyanika Wa Mukoma, D., Lunda Ilunga, J.-M., Nawrot, T. S., Luboya Numbi, O., Smolders, E., & Nemery, B.
- Affiliations
- UCLouvain (BE)
- Hasselt University (BE)
- KU Leuven (BE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Sustainability
- Published
- 2018-09-14
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 495-504
- ISSN
- 2398-9629 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6166862
- OpenAlex
- W2889657886
- Cited by
- 537
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 28.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Sustainability (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DIAL (Catholic University of Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Document Server@UHasselt (UHasselt) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (ZRDC2015PR090)
- Vlaamse regering
- VLIRUOS
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Mining and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Heavy Metal Exposure and Toxicity
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Heavy metals in environment
- Keywords
- cobalt exposure, oxidative DNA damage, child health, Kolwezi, lithium-ion batteries, critical metals, environmental pollution
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
