The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 63 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Characterizing the polycentricity in waste governance: a comparative study on Shanghai, Tokyo, and Hong Kong
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Abstract The ongoing increase in waste and its mismanagement is jeopardizing urban sustainability. Although a polycentric approach has been introduced in the waste governance practice, measuring the polycentricity of urban waste governance remains challenging. This paper, therefore, adopts game theory to analyze urban waste governance from the perspective of governance agents, characterizing the polycentricity of waste governance by investigating the state of equilibrium of each agent's strategy. Shanghai, Tokyo, and Hong Kong are selected as target cities for comparative analysis. It is found that the active participation of formal recyclers, informal recyclers, and householders characterizes polycentric waste governance in Shanghai. However, in Tokyo, there is the active participation of only formal recyclers and householders and not informal recyclers. In Hong Kong, by comparison, householders and informal recyclers show active participation, but formal recyclers only provide a limited contribution to polycentric waste governance. Further discussion highlights that different governance patterns, socioeconomic factors, and policy formulation shape the distinctive polycentric governance characteristics of these cities. This paper provides a model basis for measuring and comparing the features of polycentric waste governance across different cities, thereby contributing to the knowledge aggregation regarding waste governance, as well as enlightening the pathways of waste governance practice.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This paper uses a tripartite evolutionary game among households, formal recyclers, and informal recyclers to characterize polycentric waste governance in Shanghai, Tokyo, and Hong Kong. It finds heterogeneous equilibrium modes: collaboration among all three in Shanghai, exclusion of informal recyclers in Tokyo, and limited formal-recycler contribution in Hong Kong.
Key findings
- The evolutionary stable strategy combinations differ by city: Shanghai reaches (1, 1, 1), meaning all three stakeholders adopt positive strategies; Tokyo reaches (1, 0.1, 1), (1, 0.3, 1), (1, 0.5, 1), (1, 0.7, 1), and (1, 0.9, 1), with informal recyclers’ participation determined by initial conditions; Hong Kong reaches (1, 1, 0), with households and informal recyclers active but formal recyclers providing limited contributions.
- Shanghai’s mandatory waste separation policy in 2019 is linked to 99.5% accuracy for sorting food waste and a 114.5% increase in recyclables.
- Tokyo’s circular economy output has reached 50 trillion Yen, while Hong Kong’s urban environmental industry accounted for only 0.4% of total GDP in 2018.
- The paper attributes divergent polycentric waste governance to different governance modes, socioeconomic factors, and policy designs; Tokyo and Shanghai are described as contributing to circular economy expansion, while Hong Kong’s potential is undervalued.
Methods
- The study builds a tripartite evolutionary game model with households, formal recyclers, and informal recyclers as bounded-rational agents, using payoff matrices, replicator dynamic equations, Jacobian matrix analysis, and ESS identification; simulations were run in MATLAB 2018a.
- Three megacities—Shanghai, Tokyo, and Hong Kong—were selected for comparative case analysis. Data came from official government and research documents plus onsite investigations and surveys at informal recycling stations: 7 recycling points covering five districts in Shanghai and 7 recycling points covering six districts in Hong Kong, using participatory observation and interviews.
- The analysis compares evolutionary trajectories to equilibrium strategy combinations, with parameter values and data sources explained in Supplementary information B and interview details in Supplementary information C.
Limitations
- The paper states that it has not extensively examined how different municipal solid waste fractions affect polycentric waste governance patterns, though MSW components may directly affect economic attributes and governance outcomes.
- The paper states that the community-level model could be expanded by including more governance agents, such as the government, and by considering feedback from the community level to government policy formulation and adjustment.
- The paper states that the model is expected to be developed and verified by involving more actual scenarios, and future work could consider strategy sets shaped by digitalization, environmental awareness, and social inclusion.
- Evident from the text: the study covers only three megacities, treats government as an external intervention rather than a principal player, and relies on supplementary data and onsite work concentrated in Shanghai and Hong Kong for informal-sector parameters.
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Claims the paper makes
26 Own interpretation · 17 No full text of the sources · 13 No basis given · 9 Not checked yet · 3 Sources not found · 3 Own result · 2 Partly supported · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“the incentive measures undertaken by the formal sector, including economic incentives and enhancing public awareness, are introduced to motivate households to participate in the governance work 40 -42 .”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [40] Arantes, V., Zou, C. & Che, Y. Coping with waste: a government-NGO collaborative governance approach in Shanghai. J. Environ. Manag. 259, 109653 (2020). source
The Introduction (p. 2) says Shanghai’s municipal government launched the green account as an incentive for residents to sort waste, with NGOs playing key roles in implementation. “From service provider to service regulator” (p. 6) describes rewards and public guidance, while the Conclusions (p. 19) report increased awareness and daily recycling. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [41] Govindan, K., Zhuang, Y. & Chen, G. Analysis of factors influencing residents’ waste sorting behavior: a case study of Shanghai. J. Clean Prod. 349, 131126 (2022). source
- Supportedcites [42] Jiang, P., Van Fan, Y. & Klemeš, J. J. Data analytics of social media publicity to enhance household waste management. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 164, 105146 (2021). source
The Case statement describes Shanghai’s Green Account programme as an incentive plan to encourage residents to segregate and recycle waste, with points exchangeable for necessities and vouchers. The Introduction identifies raising residents’ awareness and guiding their waste-management behaviour as goals of social media publicity, while the Results and discussion say incentives can increase participation in household waste management. The paper does not use the phrase “governance work,” but the attributed point is supported in substance. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the equilibrium strategy combination of behavioral evolution among governance agents eventually reaches a stable state of (1, 1, 0), implying that only households and informal recyclers are willing to take positive strategies in Hong Kong.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · p. 1 · plain
“the limited contribution provided by the formal recyclers in Hong Kong”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Abstract · p. 1 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result reveals that the equilibrium state of strategy choices for the three stakeholders is represented by (1,1,1), indicating that all three agents would adopt positive strategies to facilitate the MSW management work in Shanghai.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 4 · plain
“waste governance in Shanghai is currently represented by the active participation of households, informal recyclers, and formal recyclers.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 4 · plain
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“evolutionary game theory is a useful approach to depict the equilibrium strategies of multiple stakeholders within the system by providing the dynamic evolutionary process 31 , which has been widely applied to the analysis of complex multi-actors system, including the waste management systems 19,32,33 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [31] Smith, J. M. & Price, G. R. The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246, 15–18 (1973). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Hao, X., Dong, L., Liu, G. & Zhang, X. Polycentric governance in waste management: a mechanism analysis of actors’ behavior evolution at the community level. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 191, 106879 (2023). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [32] Hao, X., Liu, G., Zhang, X. & Dong, L. The coevolution mechanism of stakeholder strategies in the recycled resources industry innovation ecosystem: the view of evolutionary game theory. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 179, 121627 (2022). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Hao, X., Sun, W. & Zhang, X. How does a scarcer allowance remake the carbon market? An evolutionary game analysis from the perspective of stakeholders. Energy 280, 128150 (2023). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite Tokyo ' s improved social recognition to practitioners, this PWG mode, primarily driven by formal recyclers and households,presents limited inclusion of low-income groups.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 6 · hedged
“with the absence of informal, this pattern may have adverse effects on low-income groups during the inclusive social transformation.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · hedged
“this mode ' s dissemination will offer limited inclusion to low-income groups, especially in developing regions.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the recent works about waste governance mode are mostly grounded on speci fi c-case modeling 22 -24 and its environmental impact assessment 25 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Börner, L. & Hegger, D. L. Toward design principles for sound e-waste governance: A research approach illustrated with the case of the Netherlands. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 134, 271–281 (2018). source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] Warshawsky, D. N. The devolution of urban food waste governance: case study of food rescue in Los Angeles. Cities 49, 26–34 (2015). source
- Not checked yetcites [24] Wu, C. Y., Hu, M. C. & Ni, F. C. Supporting a circular economy: insights from Taiwan’s plastic waste sector and lessons for developing countries. Sustain. Prod. Consump. 26, 228–238 (2021). source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] Islam, M. T. & Iyer-Raniga, U. Life cycle assessment of e-waste management system in Australia: Case of waste printed circuit board (PCB.).J. Clean Prod. 418, 138082 (2023). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is crucial for the authorities in Shanghai and Hong Kong to acknowledge the potential pollution of informal recyclers ' non-environmentalbehavior.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · plain
“the involvement of informal players in waste governance in Shanghai and Hong Kongposeschallenges to environmental protection compared to the formal recyclers in Tokyo, who are responsible for the entire transfer and disposal chain, such as the secondary pollution that occurs in the collection and preprocessing stage.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · hedged
“it is imperative for authorities in Shanghai and Hong Kong to regulate informal behavior to alleviate the potential environmental risks.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“efforts have been made to foster collaboration between the informal and formal sectors, such as integrating the MSW recycling network with the resource-reutilization network 39 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] Xiao, S. et al. An overview of the municipal solid waste management modes and innovations in Shanghai, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27, 29943–29953 (2020). source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the formal sector actively engages at the community level by providing convenience to reduce the time cost of sorting for households 39 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] Xiao, S. et al. An overview of the municipal solid waste management modes and innovations in Shanghai, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27, 29943–29953 (2020). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The divergent PWG characteristics can be attributed to variations in governance patterns, socioeconomic factors, and policy formulation.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 4 · plain
“different socioeconomic factors and policy designs have given rise to diverse polycentric features, especially in the role of informal recyclers in the governance system.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · plain
“the heterogenous governance modes, socioeconomic factors, and policy designs shape different polycentric characteristics.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 4 · plain
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“This mismanagementexacerbatesthenegativeexternalities associated with MSW, impacting the environment 5 -7 , society 8 , and economy 9 . Consequently, it poses a signi fi cant threat to urban sustainability”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [5] Zhang, Y. et al. Plastic waste discharge to the global ocean constrained by seawater observations. Nat. Commun. 14, 1372 (2023). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction links mismanaged plastic waste to ocean plastic debris and describes a potential threat to wildlife and humans, supporting the environmental-impact portion for which this source is cited. It does not establish the broader claim about municipal solid waste generally. The citations for social and economic impacts are attached to other sources, while the urban-sustainability conclusion is not specifically attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [6] Lau, W. W. et al. Evaluating scenarios toward zero plastic pollution. Science 369, 1455–1461 (2020). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] MacLeod, M., Arp, H. P. H., Tekman, M. B. & Jahnke, A. The global threat from plastic pollution. Science 373, 61–65 (2021). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Kalina, M. Waste management in a more unequal world: centring inequality in our waste and climate change discourse. Local Environ. 25, 612–618 (2020). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Anshassi, M. & Townsend, T. G. The hidden economic and environmental costs of eliminating kerb-side recycling. Nat. Sustain. 6, 919–928 (2023). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“it is challenging to characterize polycentric waste governance for different regions, although current work has systematically compiled the methods for evaluating the circular economy 26 .”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [26] Van Bueren, B. J., Iyer-Raniga, U., Leenders, M. A. & Argus, K. Comprehensiveness of circular economy assessments of regions: a systematic review at the macro-level. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 103001 (2021). source
The citation follows the clause about systematically compiling methods for evaluating the circular economy, not the preceding claim about polycentric waste governance. The paper’s Materials and methods section describes a systematic review of macro-level circular-economy assessments, and section 5.1 says its findings include taxonomies of methodologies and indicators. The indexed passages do not give page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“MosthouseholdsinHongKongareawareofenvironmentalprotection and valid cognition of waste separation and recycling.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [52] Ma, F. C., Wong, T. L., Chan, C. N. & Ran, L. Revising the effectiveness of municipal waste management in Hong Kong. Front. Environ. Sci. 11, 474 (2023). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Results §3.1 reports that most of the 100 survey respondents correctly identified several common recyclable materials. It does not establish that most Hong Kong households understand waste separation or are environmentally aware; the same section describes substantial variation in awareness, and Discussion §4.1 calls citizens’ awareness insufficient for reducing waste. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Partly supportedcites [53] Cheng, C., Zhou, Y. & Zhang, L. Sustainable environmental management through a municipal solid waste charging scheme: a hong kong perspective. Front. Environ. Sci. 10, 919683 (2022). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Is Hong Kong Ready for MSW Charging?” (page unavailable), the paper reports that a majority of surveyed residents supported waste charging and that respondents felt responsible for protecting the environment. This lends support to environmental awareness, but the paper does not establish that most Hong Kong households understand waste separation and recycling. (LLM, conf=0.78)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is found that the equilibrium state of behavioral evolution among the governance actors is diverse -(1, 0.1, 1), (1, 0.3, 1), (1, 0.5, 1), (1, 0.7, 1), and (1, 0.9, 1), indicating that both formal recyclers and households eventually choose positive strategies within the MSW management system with the absence of informal recyclers.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · p. 1 · plain
“the exclusion of informal recyclers in Tokyo”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 4 · plain
“in Tokyo, only two principal players are observed in the polycentric waste governance system, which are households and formal recyclers. The informal recyclers are excluded.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Abstract · p. 1 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the informal recycler ' s willingness to participate is only in fl uenced by the initial value, and their choices do not impact the strategies of other stakeholders, and vice versa.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There are some articles that try to evaluate waste governance performance by developing respective indicator systems 28 -30 . However, these concepts center on overall system assessment only, which demands the provision of feasible measures, especially the measures developed from stakeholders ' perspective, for the improvement of waste governance practices.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Loizia, P. et al. Measuring the level of environmental performance in insular areas, through key performed indicators, in the framework of waste strategy development. Sci. Total Environ. 753, 141974 (2021). source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [29] Rodrigues, A. P. et al. Developing criteria for performance assessment in municipal solid waste management. J. Clean Prod. 186, 748–757 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [30] Zaman, A. U. Identification of key assessment indicators of the zero waste management systems. Ecol. Indic. 36, 682–693 (2014). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“the successful implementation of the mandatory waste separation policy in 2019 has resulted in more households ' engagement in waste governance with 99.5% accuracy for sorting the food waste, contributing to increase of the recyclables by 114.5% 36 -38 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] Jiang, P. et al. Data analysis of resident engagement and sentiments in social media enables better household waste segregation and recycling. J. Clean Prod. 319, 128809 (2021). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] Wang, Y. et al. Implementation effect of municipal solid waste mandatory sorting policy in Shanghai. J. Environ. Manag. 298, 113512 (2021). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] Yang, J., Jiang, P., Zheng, M., Zhou, J. & Liu, X. Investigating the influencing factors of incentive-based household waste recycling using structural equation modelling. Waste Manag. 142, 120–131 (2022). source
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“it is found that government or market governance cannot be effective in all contexts, and the monocentric governance mode often induces different types of failures 19 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Hao, X., Dong, L., Liu, G. & Zhang, X. Polycentric governance in waste management: a mechanism analysis of actors’ behavior evolution at the community level. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 191, 106879 (2023). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the governance structure behind it shows a remarkable polycentricity 19 and varies from city to city.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] Hao, X., Dong, L., Liu, G. & Zhang, X. Polycentric governance in waste management: a mechanism analysis of actors’ behavior evolution at the community level. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 191, 106879 (2023). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding urban sustainability, Tokyo and Shanghai ' s PWGcontribute to the circular economy ' s expansion, while Hong Kong ' potential, in this regard, is undervalued.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · plain
“the polycentric waste governance in Tokyo and Shanghai contributes to the expansion of the circular economy, while Hong Kong ' s potential in this regard remains underestimated.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · p. 7 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the active participation of households, the government authorized formal recyclers to engage in waste transfer and disposal, with subsidies and contracts to stimulate their active participation.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the environmental awareness of households and consideration for others creates intense community supervision, and such community-level mutual supervision allows citizens to participate actively in waste governance.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“given the excessive fi nancial burdens and the lack of subsidies, formal recyclers tend to maintain the current options, resulting in the absence of continuous improvement to the recycling infrastructure, community engagement, and other aspects.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Based on Shanghai ' s example, the waste sorting policy has been subsequently disseminated to other cities in China, such as Beijing, Nanjing, etc 43,44 , with various business models at the community level 45 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] Yang, S., Wei, J. & Cheng, P. Spillover of different regulatory policies for waste sorting: potential influence on energy-saving policy acceptability. Waste Manag. 125, 112–121 (2021). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Zhang, Z. & Wang, X. Nudging to promote household waste source separation: mechanisms and spillover effects. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 162, 105054 (2020). source
- Not checked yetcites [45] Tong, X. et al. Exploring business models for carbon emission reduction via post-consumer recycling infrastructures in Beijing: an agent-based modelling approach. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 188, 106666 (2023). source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Since the initiative of constructing a sound material-cycle society, proposed in 2000, the Japanese government has established a top-down waste management scheme, based on the 3 R principle (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle), and emphasized the bottom-up participation of community-level actors in waste governance 46 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Silva, A., Rosano, M., Stocker, L. & Gorissen, L. From waste to sustainable materials management: three case studies of the transition journey. Waste Manag. 61, 547–557 (2017). source
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“a market-driven approach is simultaneously coordinating the bottom-up waste governance work by providing suf fi cient pro fi t margins and facilitating the sustainable improvement of waste management 57 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [57] Hezri, A. A. Toward 3R-based waste management: policy change in Japan, Malaysia and the Philippines. 3R Policies for Southeast and East Asia. p. 274–290 (Jakarta: ERIA, 2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“the authority adopted corresponding regulatory instruments -the sound institutional framework (e.g., take-back policy), strict regulatory measures, a solid foundation of resident awareness, and stringent penalties for non-environmental behavior, resulting in the exclusion of the informal recyclers 48 -50 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Shekdar, A. V. Sustainable solid waste management: an integrated approach for Asian countries. Waste Manag. 29, 1438–1448 (2009). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [49] Takahashi, W. Economic rationalism or administrative rationalism? Curbside collection systems in Sweden and Japan. J. Clean Prod. 242, 118288 (2020). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [50] Zhang, H., Ozturk, U. A., Wang, Q. & Zhao, Z. Biodiesel produced by waste cooking oil: review of recycling modes in China, the US and Japan. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 38, 677–685 (2014). source
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low-income groups are primarily involved in informal recycling.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These widespread behavioral habits have become social norms that guide and regulate residents ' actions, facilitating the transfer from waste generation to waste recycling.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the implementation of the mandatory waste classi fi cation policy in Shanghai in 2019, households have become another vital subject in the waste governance system.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Following the waste recycling revolution in 2019, policy constraints, such as penalties for non-environmentally friendly behaviors, have transformed the relationship between informal recyclers and formal recyclers from competitive to collaborative, with a growing inclination towards formalization among informal recyclers 61 -63 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] Chi, X., Streicher-Porte, M., Wang, M. Y. & Reuter, M. A. Informal electronic waste recycling: a sector review with special focus on China. Waste Manag. 31, 731–742 (2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [62] da Silva, C. L., Weins, N. & Potinkara, M. Formalizing the informal? A perspective on informal waste management in the BRICS through the lens of institutional economics. Waste Manag. 99, 79–89 (2019). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [63] Tong, X., Tao, D. & Lifset, R. Varieties of business models for post-consumer recycling in China. J. Clean Prod. 170, 665–673 (2018). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Through extensive education efforts, Tokyo ' s residents have developed strong behavioral motivations toward resource conservation and environmental protection, leading to pro-environmental behaviors and practices such as sophisticated waste sorting.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the output of Japan ' s circular economy has reached 50 trillion Yen 64 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [64] Institute of World Economics and Politics Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. The Development Of Circular Economy In Japan https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1742038708526498025&wfr=spider&for=pc (2022).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The polycentric governance mode in Tokyo, led by residents and formal recyclers, has increased the social recognition of the participants involved while reducing the social discrimination against the practitioners through well-organized social and public education.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in Hong Kong, older individuals, who are vulnerable to external risks and uncertainties, predominantly engage in informal recycling work.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The polycentricity of waste governance in these megacities can then be measured with the proposed model.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“the fl exibility and mobility of the informal sector allow for non-environmentally friendly practices, which jeopardize the environment and the health of workers 61 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] Chi, X., Streicher-Porte, M., Wang, M. Y. & Reuter, M. A. Informal electronic waste recycling: a sector review with special focus on China. Waste Manag. 31, 731–742 (2011). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These megacities have embraced waste policy interventions to foster waste governance but in different stages.”
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The escalating issue of waste accumulation with its adverse environmental impacts has become a global concern in the realm of urban sustainability.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“cities have launched various initiatives, leading to diverse outcomes in waste governance.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Effective waste recycling and disposal help mitigate negative environmental externalities such as waste-carbon emissions and pollutant reduction 1 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Gómez-Sanabria, A., Kiesewetter, G., Klimont, Z., Schoepp, W. & Haberl, H. Potential for future reductions of global GHG and air pollutants from circular waste management systems. Nat. Commun. 1, 106 (2022). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is advocated that the alliance-based governance embracing various stakeholders should be taken into account to mitigate the potential market failure.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The three main stakeholders (households, formal recyclers, informal recyclers) operate in line with bounded rationality.
“The three main stakeholders are assumed to operate in line with bounded rationality.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Each governance agent makes decisions based on economic rationality, selecting the strategy with higher economic benefits.
“each governance agent will make a decision based on the premise of economic rationality due to the economic attributes of waste, which means that the strategy with higher economic bene fi ts will be selected.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Driven by economic interests, there is potential competition among various governance actors, such as between formal and informal recyclers.
“driven by economic interests, there is potential competition among various governance actors, such as the competition between formal recyclers and informal recyclers.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The decision-making of each agent in the polycentric waste governance system will exhibit a dynamic equilibrium.
“the decision-making of each agent in the polycentric waste governance system will exhibit a dynamic equilibrium”
The paper relies on this without support.
The equilibrium strategies chosen by stakeholders denote the operational modes of waste governance in different cities.
“The equilibrium strategies chosen by these stakeholders denote the operational modes of waste governance in different cities”
The paper relies on this without support.
The equilibrium state characterizes the polycentric waste governance.
“the equilibrium state characterizes the polycentric waste governance”
The paper relies on this without support.
Negative spillover effects from informal disposal jeopardize the health of workers.
“the negative spillover effects entailed by the informal disposal will jeopardize the workers ' health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The supervision sector penalizes the potential environmental negative externalities from the informal sector's negative participation.
“The potential environmental negative externalities from the informal sector ' s ' NP ' will also be penalized by the supervision sector.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The government subsidizes formal recyclers to encourage their positive participation in recycling waste.
“the government would subsidize the formal recyclers to encourage their positive participation in recycling the waste”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Problem description . · p. 9
“Table 2 | Informal recycler-formal recycler payoff matrix, when the household chooses the ' AP '”
§ Problem description . · p. 8
“Thus,thestrategy set for households is ' Active Engagement ' and ' Partial Engagement ' , namely ' AE ' and ' PE ' .”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Hong Kong case · p. 4
“Informal recyclers are inclined to adopt a cooperative strategy with formal sectors due to the stringent penalties imposed by enforcement authorities on environment-friendly activities.”
§ Problem description . · p. 8
“The potential environmental negative externalities from the informal sector ' s ' NP ' will also be penalized by the supervision sector.”
Citations
Cites
Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
Ostrom, E. (1990) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807763 · Cited by 20,653
What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050
Kaza, S., Yao, L. C., Bhada-Tata, P., Van Woerden, F., & Levine, D. (2018) · doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1329-0 · Cited by 6,126
SMITH, J. M., & PRICE, G. R. (1973) · Nature · doi:10.1038/246015a0 · Cited by 5,089
Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems
Elinor Ostrom, B. (2010) · Lexington Books · doi:10.1080/19186444.2010.11658229 · Cited by 4,819
Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems
Ostrom, E. (2010) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.100.3.641 · Cited by 4,529
The global threat from plastic pollution
MacLeod, M., Arp, H. P. H., Tekman, M. B., & Jahnke, A. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abg5433 · Cited by 2,951
The general problem of the stability of motion
Lyapunov, A. M. (1992) · International Journal of Control · doi:10.1080/00207179208934253 · Cited by 2,654
Evaluating scenarios toward zero plastic pollution
Lau, W. W. Y., Shiran, Y., Bailey, R. M., Cook, E., Stuchtey, M. R., Koskella, J., Velis, C. A., Godfrey, L., Boucher, J., Murphy, M. B., et al. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aba9475 · Cited by 1,766
COPING WITH TRAGEDIES OF THE COMMONS
Elinor Ostrom, B. (1999) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.493 · Cited by 1,456
The United States’ contribution of plastic waste to land and ocean
Law, K. L., Starr, N., Siegler, T. R., Jambeck, J. R., Mallos, N. J., & Leonard, G. H. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd0288 · Cited by 525
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hao, X., Tian, T., Li, K., Zhang, X., & Dong, L. (2025) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2025.124319 · Cited by 7
Self-citationA typology of resource circularity in cities
Goldstein, B. P., Levy, D., Hawes, J. K., & Finn, B. M. (2025) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108743 · Cited by 4
Understanding ‘Bad Governance’ in the urban south: a case study of solid waste management in Ghana
Danso, E. Y. A., & He, J. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning · doi:10.1080/1523908x.2025.2602842 · Cited by 3
Amr, T., Elwageeh, E., Fujii, M., & Nasr, M. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17125317 · Cited by 2
Bacong, Luangco, & Dejucos (2026) · DIT ADS International Multidisciplinary Research Journal · doi:10.63941/dit.adsimrj.2026.2.1.25
Metadata
- Authors
- Hao, X., Dong, L., Qian, X., Benjamin, S., Wang, H., Chen, P., Wang, X., Ma, W., Li, J., Tong, X., & Zhang, X.
- Affiliations
- Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (CN)
- City University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Sophia University (JP)
- Macau University of Science and Technology (MO)
- Tongji University (CN)
- Harbin Institute of Technology (CN)
- Peking University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Dong, Liang
- Zhang, Xiaoling
- ORCID
- Venue
- npj Urban Sustainability
- Published
- 2024-08-06
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2661-8001 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4402028557
- Semantic Scholar
- 4d9d22aa1970094db92dea7e6baa2eab011df4bd
- Cited by
- 8
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4
- FWCI
- 1.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- npj Urban Sustainability (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Square (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CityU Scholars (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation of China | National Natural Science Foundation of China-Yunnan Joint Fund (72061137071)
- Environment and Conservation Fund (88/2022)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Municipal Solid Waste Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Waste Management and Recycling
- Social Sciences › Public Administration › Public Policy and Administration Research
- Keywords
- polycentric governance, game theory, equilibrium strategies, waste pickers, Shanghai, Tokyo, Hong Kong, waste management policy, urban sustainability
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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