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Cited by 561Spacecraft and Cryogenic TechnologiesHydrogen Storage and MaterialsHybrid Renewable Energy Systems

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 257 of the 258 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 340 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities

Open access
Al Ghafri, Saif ZS., Munro, Stephanie, Cardella, Umberto, Funke, Thomas, Notardonato, William, Trusler, J. P. Martin, Leachman, Jacob, Span, Roland, Kamiya, Shoji, Pearce, Garth, Swanger, Adam, Rodriguez, Elma Dorador, Bajada, Paul, Jiao, Fuyu, Peng, Kun, Siahvashi, Arman, Johns, Michael L., May, Eric F.·2022·Energy & Environmental Science
DOI 10.1039/d2ee00099g
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Abstract

Hydrogen is emerging as one of the most promising energy carriers for a decarbonised global energy system.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes the fundamental physics, engineering practice, and future opportunities for liquid hydrogen liquefaction across the value chain. It identifies economics, cryogenic losses, safety, and scale as key barriers, and sets targets of 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ specific energy consumption and 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ specific liquefaction cost with scale-up to around 100 TPD.

Key findings

  • Current industrial liquefiers have specific energy consumption (SEC) of 11.9–15 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹, or 35–45% of hydrogen’s lower heating value, with exergy efficiencies of 20–30%; specific liquefaction cost (SLC) is 2.5–3.0 US$ per kg LH₂. The largest single liquefier is 32 TPD, and total global capacity is about 350 TPD.
  • Conceptual designs report SECs of 4–14 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹; examples include IDEALHY at 50 TPD with 6.7 kWh kg⁻¹ and 32% exergy efficiency, HP-H₂ at 100 TPD with 6.2 kWh kg⁻¹ and 43%, and the Kuendig model at 4 kWh kg⁻¹. The review targets 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ and SLC of 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ at capacities around 100 TPD or larger.
  • Ortho-para conversion is central: normal hydrogen is 75% ortho and 25% para; conversion to para-hydrogen releases 525 kJ kg⁻¹, larger than the 448 kJ kg⁻¹ enthalpy of vaporisation at the normal boiling point. Without catalyst, conversion can take days or weeks, and the heat of conversion can evaporate more than 70% of stored liquid hydrogen.
  • Boil-off losses can consume up to 40% of liquid hydrogen’s available combustion energy; NASA’s Space Shuttle program purchased over 24,500 tonnes of LH₂, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishment. Reported BOG losses are about 0.4% per day for a 50 m³ tank and 0.06% per day for a 20,000 m³ tank.

Methods

  • Narrative review covering the liquid hydrogen value chain: molecular hydrogen properties, ortho-para conversion, thermodynamic and transport property models, industrial and conceptual liquefaction processes, storage and transport, safety, standards, costs, and R&D priorities.
  • Compiles comparative tables of hydrogen production costs, hydrogen vector properties, critical properties, liquefaction plants, conceptual processes, liquefaction costs, insulation methods, and suggested R&D priorities.
  • Includes a process simulation example for a 5 TPD Brayton refrigeration cycle using helium, comparing the Peng-Robinson EOS with a reference Helmholtz EOS; the two EOS gave 91 TPD vs 110 TPD helium flow (21% difference) and 5.5 vs 6.8 kWh kg⁻¹ SEC (23% difference).

Limitations

  • The paper states that its list of research, development, and demonstration priorities is non-exhaustive and reflects an informed yet subjective perspective based on current knowledge and discussions with industry experts.
  • The paper notes that conceptual liquefaction models do not generally fully consider total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale up component unit operations; current approved future liquefiers do not exceed about 30 TPD per single train.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, it presents no new primary experimental data except the simulation example, and many cost and performance projections depend on literature assumptions with wide variation, such as distribution costs ranging from 0 to 8.2 US$ per kg H₂.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1039/d2ee00099g

Cites

257 of 258 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

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Show all 154 claims

  • It may state two separate claims as one. 109
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 100
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
181 of 181

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.

    “There is increasing consensus that hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Storing and transporting hydrogen energy over long time scales and distances requires a physical or chemical conversion process to achieve a viable energy density.

    “While the production stage usually generates gaseous H 2 , storing and transporting the associated energy over long time scales and distances requires the implementation of a physical or chemical conversion process within the 3rd stage of the value chain to achieve a viable energy density.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The very-high purity requirements of H2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.

    “The very-high purity requirements of H 2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.

    “Scale: currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.

    “Safety: liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.

    “Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.

    “Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.

    “Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The overall heat exchanger size is limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.

    “The overall heat exchanger size is, however, limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.

    “Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as relevant working fluids.

    “While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as the relevant working fluid.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.

    “Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.

    “Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To date, industrial liquefiers have been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.

    “To date, industrial liquefiers has been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.

    “Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquefaction capacity plays a major role in the cost breakdown.

    “Liquefaction capacity also plays a major role in the cost breakdown.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To date, such efficiency (6.4 kWh/kg) has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.

    “To date, such efficiency has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Turbo compressors are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.

    “which are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.

    “Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.

    “These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the NASA Space Shuttle program, over 24,500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.

    “where over 24 500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.

    “Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.

    “Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ullage space is typically ~10% of the internal volume of the tank.

    “Ullage space is typically r10% of the internal volume of the tank.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.

    “Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and carbon capture and storage technologies are more mature.

    “Additionally, the cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and CCS technologies are also more mature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has dropped dramatically with the development of fuel cell technologies.

    “Finally, the cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has also dropped dramatically with the development, for example, of fuel cell technologies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.

    “Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen can cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.

    “Hydrogen can also cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases such as air and nitrogen to condense and solidify, which can cause blockages and failures in equipment.

    “Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases (such as air and nitrogen) to condense and solidify -this can cause blockages and failures in equipment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Until hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.

    “Until the hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.

    “Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are, however, still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    While the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in understanding stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.

    “Whilst the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in the understanding of stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.

    “the world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.

    “based on the averages across the studies considered in Table 9”
38 of 38

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The lower end of the SEC range is not 35% of hydrogen's heating value

    Minor

    The paper gives hydrogen's lower heating value as 33.3 kWh per kg. An SEC of 10 kWh per kg is about 30% of that value, not 35%.

    Reported 35 · recomputed 30.03003

  • Two SEC values are given for the WE-NET process

    Minor

    The text reports 8.72 kWh per kg for WE-NET, while Table 5 reports 8.53 kWh per kg for the same named process.

2 of 2

Citations

Cites

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Show all 248 references

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Metadata

Authors
Al Ghafri, S. Z., Munro, S., Cardella, U., Funke, T., Notardonato, W., Trusler, J. P. M., Leachman, J., Span, R., Kamiya, S., Pearce, G., Swanger, A., Rodriguez, E. D., Bajada, P., Jiao, F., Peng, K., Siahvashi, A., Johns, M. L., & May, E. F.
Affiliations
  • Fluid Science and Resources Division, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
  • The University of Western Australia (AU)
  • Kempten University of Applied Sciences (DE)
  • FormFactor (Germany) (DE)
  • MitaVista, the Space Life Science Lab Suite 201C, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, FL 32953, USA
  • Imperial College London (GB)
  • Washington State University (US)
  • Ruhr University Bochum (DE)
  • Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd, 1-1, Kawasaki-cho, Akashi-City, 673-8666, Japan
  • UNSW Sydney (AU)
  • Kennedy Space Center (US)
Corresponding author
May, Eric F.
ORCID
Venue
Energy & Environmental Science
Publisher
Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
Published
2022
Volume
15
Issue
7
Pages
2690-2731
ISSN
  • 1754-5692 (ISSN-L)
  • 1754-5706
DOI
10.1039/d2ee00099g
OpenAlex
W4225906509
Cited by
561
References
248
Citations by year
2026: 149 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 147 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 11
FWCI
45.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Energy & Environmental Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
  • Australian Research Council (FT180100572, IC150100019)
  • Cooperative Research Centres, Australian Government Department of Industry (CRCXXI000008)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Hydrogen Storage and Materials
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
Keywords
hydrogen liquefaction, hydrogen energy carriers, decarbonization, cryogenic hydrogen storage, liquefied natural gas

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