The DOI matches its Crossref record; 257 of the 258 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 340 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities
Open accessAbstract
Hydrogen is emerging as one of the most promising energy carriers for a decarbonised global energy system.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review synthesizes the fundamental physics, engineering practice, and future opportunities for liquid hydrogen liquefaction across the value chain. It identifies economics, cryogenic losses, safety, and scale as key barriers, and sets targets of 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ specific energy consumption and 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ specific liquefaction cost with scale-up to around 100 TPD.
Key findings
- Current industrial liquefiers have specific energy consumption (SEC) of 11.9–15 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹, or 35–45% of hydrogen’s lower heating value, with exergy efficiencies of 20–30%; specific liquefaction cost (SLC) is 2.5–3.0 US$ per kg LH₂. The largest single liquefier is 32 TPD, and total global capacity is about 350 TPD.
- Conceptual designs report SECs of 4–14 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹; examples include IDEALHY at 50 TPD with 6.7 kWh kg⁻¹ and 32% exergy efficiency, HP-H₂ at 100 TPD with 6.2 kWh kg⁻¹ and 43%, and the Kuendig model at 4 kWh kg⁻¹. The review targets 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ and SLC of 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ at capacities around 100 TPD or larger.
- Ortho-para conversion is central: normal hydrogen is 75% ortho and 25% para; conversion to para-hydrogen releases 525 kJ kg⁻¹, larger than the 448 kJ kg⁻¹ enthalpy of vaporisation at the normal boiling point. Without catalyst, conversion can take days or weeks, and the heat of conversion can evaporate more than 70% of stored liquid hydrogen.
- Boil-off losses can consume up to 40% of liquid hydrogen’s available combustion energy; NASA’s Space Shuttle program purchased over 24,500 tonnes of LH₂, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishment. Reported BOG losses are about 0.4% per day for a 50 m³ tank and 0.06% per day for a 20,000 m³ tank.
Methods
- Narrative review covering the liquid hydrogen value chain: molecular hydrogen properties, ortho-para conversion, thermodynamic and transport property models, industrial and conceptual liquefaction processes, storage and transport, safety, standards, costs, and R&D priorities.
- Compiles comparative tables of hydrogen production costs, hydrogen vector properties, critical properties, liquefaction plants, conceptual processes, liquefaction costs, insulation methods, and suggested R&D priorities.
- Includes a process simulation example for a 5 TPD Brayton refrigeration cycle using helium, comparing the Peng-Robinson EOS with a reference Helmholtz EOS; the two EOS gave 91 TPD vs 110 TPD helium flow (21% difference) and 5.5 vs 6.8 kWh kg⁻¹ SEC (23% difference).
Limitations
- The paper states that its list of research, development, and demonstration priorities is non-exhaustive and reflects an informed yet subjective perspective based on current knowledge and discussions with industry experts.
- The paper notes that conceptual liquefaction models do not generally fully consider total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale up component unit operations; current approved future liquefiers do not exceed about 30 TPD per single train.
- Evident from the text: as a review, it presents no new primary experimental data except the simulation example, and many cost and performance projections depend on literature assumptions with wide variation, such as distribution costs ranging from 0 to 8.2 US$ per kg H₂.
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Claims the paper makes
223 Sources not found · 65 Own interpretation · 36 No basis given · 9 Own result · 1 Not checked yet · 1 Own method
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The helium mass flow rate and SEC calculated using the two different EOS were 91 TPD vs 110 TPD (21% difference) and 5.5 kWh kg À1 vs. 6.8 kWh kg À1 (23% difference), respectively.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [213]
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plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This evaluates to 3.9 kWh kg LH 2 À1 given the following specifications: 126 Inlet and outlet hydrogen pressure: 0.101 MPa; Inlet hydrogen temperature: 303 K; Ambient temperature: 298 K, and Inlet and outlet para-hydrogen mole fractions: 25% and 99.8%.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
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In the paper
“However, limited consideration is given to total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale-up the component unit operations.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.4 Technical gap between actual and conceptual units
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In the paper
“There is no evidence of turbo compressors currently being used in industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Realistically attainable coldbox dimensions can, however, be a constraint on the large-scale liquefiers proposed by conceptual studies.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The SEC range of conceptual hydrogen liquefaction plants is 4-14 kWh kg LH 2 À1 .”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.3 Conceptual liquefaction processes and technology
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In the paper
“The transport cost component of the liquid hydrogen supply chains varies slightly more, depending on the distance considered by the supply chain with an average of (1.32 Æ 0.71) US$ per kg H 2 across all studies.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.
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In the paper
“The second most variable component in the LCOH of prospective LH 2 supply chains considered in the literature is the production cost.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is clear that there is significant variation between studies in the contribution of each cost component to the overall LCOH, which can make it difficult to compare different analyses or identify any trends associated with scale.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
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In the paper
“The liquefaction cost component has an average of (1.45 Æ 0.66) US$ per kg H 2 , where the error bound denotes the standard deviation for the studies listed.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 109
- Probably not a substantial claim. 100
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The helium mass flow rate and SEC calculated using the two different EOS were 91 TPD vs 110 TPD (21% difference) and 5.5 kWh kg À1 vs. 6.8 kWh kg À1 (23% difference), respectively.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [213]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The capacity of these conceptual plants ranges from (5 to 864) TPD.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.3 Conceptual liquefaction processes and technology
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In the paper
“Pre-cooling is a hallmark of all industrial and conceptual process in Table 5.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“More than fifty industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants have been constructed since 1952, with more than fifteen industrial plants constructed or proposed since 2000, as shown in Table 4.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Commercial catalysts are used in both the pre-cooling stage (where LN 2 is often used as the refrigerant) and the cryogenic stages before the final expansion.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
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In the paper
“Recently-constructed plants are based on modified Claude cycles and use catalyst-packed heat exchangers (for continuous ortho-para conversion).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Key limitations regarding heat exchanger design are excessive pressure drop through the catalyst bed and the ability to model quantitatively conversion kinetics while incorporating relevant heat and mass transfer limitations.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.
In the paper
“Conceptual plants are designed to provide lower SEC and higher exergy efficiency, as summarised in Fig. 11.126”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.4 Technical gap between actual and conceptual units
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
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In the paper
“Most of the conceptual processes identified in Table 5 utilise a turbine expander both on the hydrogen and refrigeration side; however little detail as to the type to be deployed is provided.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“From Table 5, it is evident that piston and turbo/centrifugal compressors are widely considered in conceptual processes.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The most variable component across the literature studies is the distribution cost, which ranges from 0 for several studies where it was not considered at all to Energy & Environmental Science Review 8.2 US$ per kg H 2 .”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The BoilFAST results for the 12.5 m 3 LH 2 storage tank were in excellent agreement with those calculated by Petitpas and provided additional predictions such as BOG relief rate.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Fig. 14, specific liquefaction costs generally decrease with increasing plant capacity; however, this depends largely on the electricity cost which varied between (40 and 120) US$ per MW h across these studies.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The liquefaction and transport cost components have comparatively smaller variances than those of production and distribution and, based on the averages across the studies considered in Table 9, are the third and fourth largest contributors to the LCOH of the liquid hydrogen supply chains, respectively.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supply chains that involve maritime transport over distances of 1000 km or more had average transport costs of 0.14 US$ per kg H 2 per 1000 km, while over shorter distances (80 to 500 km) transport costs increased to 4.78 US$ per kg H 2 per 1000 km.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“While existing liquefiers produce liquid hydrogen at (2.5 and 3) US$$ per kg LH 2 , some conceptual designs are projected to produce liquid hydrogen below 1 US$$ per kg LH 2 .”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On average, the daily BOG amount was calculated by both methods to be 5 kg (less than 0.5% volume loss per day).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.
- The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As detailed in Section 2, a relatively large body of experimental data exists for the density, thermal conductivity and viscosity of hydrogen.”
- Also stated in: § Energy & Environmental Science · plain
“However, their coverage of the conditions relevant to liquefaction are in some cases inadequate, and many of the data sets have significant scatter with few of the original articles providing a sufficiently detailed uncertainty analysis.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Energy & Environmental Science · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current commercial processes have SECs from (11.9 to 15) kWh kg H 2 À1 (or 35 to 45% of the stored energy content), and SLCs around (2.5-3) US$ per kg H 2 , which is larger than the current cost of producing blue hydrogen.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Currently, global liquefaction capacity is around 350 TPD with a further 96 TPD planned; the capacity of the largest single train is 32 TPD.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, the improving efficiencies and costreductions occurring in renewable energy generation and green hydrogen production suggest a cost curve trajectory that may bring them into line with blue hydrogen in the coming decade.59”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 1 Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [59]
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hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Pairing hydrogen produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage (CCS) 5 (to produce so-called blue hydrogen) can increase the associated cost by up to 54% while reducing CO 2 emissions.37”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 1 Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
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plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Green hydrogen production technologies [38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56] (from renewable energy sources together with electrolysis, solar thermochemical splitting and biochemical processes) also face significant challenges as they are still limited in scale, ‡ 58 and their energy consumption is not yet costcompetitive.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 1 Introduction
What the sources say
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Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [46]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [47]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Park et al. 184 studied the pressure drop in a catalyst-packed heat exchanger using a cylinder filled with commercial IONEX s catalyst.It was found that the pressure drop is almost linearly dependent on space velocity (up to 1 bar pressure drop at velocity of 5 m s À1 ) and approximately five times lower than that predicted using the Ergun equation.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [184]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“A general conclusion is that new, high-quality data for multicomponent refrigerant mixtures are needed to improve the reliability of the equations of state used in process simulations, which in turn could reduce design margins and cost.[203][204][205][206]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [203]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [204]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [205]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [206]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Historically, the Brayton refrigeration cycle has only been considered appropriate for small-scale plants; however, more recent literature has considered its expanded use in larger-scale systems.124,131”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [124]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [131]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Current processes have specific energy consumptions (SEC ¶) of between (11.9 and 15) kWh kg LH 2 À1 which is (35 to 45)% of the lower heating value of hydrogen.[124][125][126]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Liquid hydrogen's role in the value chain
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [124]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [125]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“the rate constants determined by Milenko et al. were determined from the time required to convert hydrogen samples from 75% to 68% ortho-hydrogen.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [169]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences in thermal conductivity have been used as a basis for measurements of the ortho-para ratio in a sample of hydrogen, particularly in the temperature range (50 to 250) K.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.3 Transport properties and experimental data needs
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“annual global demand is projected to reach 621 million tonnes, with the majority being used in the transportation sector.88”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 1 Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [88]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, while global hydrogen production is now approximately 75 million tonnes per year, 87”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 1 Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [87]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“LH 2 is usually stored at 20-23 K (0.1-0.2 MPa) with a para-hydrogen fraction greater than 98%.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.1 Fundamentals of hydrogen liquefaction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In typical catalyst packings, many such micro-cavities are formed within the porous material.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“IONEX s is a commercially available catalyst used widely by industry for ortho-para conversion that functions via the mechanism of spin conversion at magnetically-ordered surfaces.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [173]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both the experimental data situation and, consequently, the accuracy of predictive models are worse for the transport properties of hydrogen and its mixtures.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.3 Transport properties and experimental data needs
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“By 2050, the Hydrogen Council has estimated that 10% of total hydrogen demand, or 0.17 million tonnes per day, could be transported by sea.129”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Liquid hydrogen's role in the value chain
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [129]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Exposure to trace impurities during operation can result in catalyst poisoning (H 2 S, mercaptans) or gradual deactivation (N 2 , H 2 O, CO x , NO x ).174”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [174]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An additional advantage of liquid hydrogen over other possible vectors include its relatively high volumetric hydrogen density (80% greater than gaseous H 2 compressed to 70 MPa, and 50% greater than methylcyclohexane).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Liquid hydrogen's role in the value chain
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In the presence of such catalysts the kinetics are approximately first order with full conversion achieved in minutes.[134][135][136]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [134]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [135]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [136]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“IONEX s is a porous particulate catalyst composed of Fe 2 O 3 with a surface area around 216 m 2 g À1 and particle (mesh) sizes between 0.3 and 0.6 mm.134”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [134]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The Linde-Hampson is one of the oldest (1895) cycles used to liquefy gases and is characterised by low efficiency compared with other systems; it is only considered appropriate for small-scale (o2 TPD) systems.131,199”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [131]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [199]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, the GERG-2008 EOS was developed for natural gas mixtures, with the primary focus being CH 4 dominant systems with H 2 considered only as an impurity.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Mixtures with hydrogen and refrigerants.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [152]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The resulting transition rates are therefore dependent on the concentration and temperature of the orthohydrogen molecules present, and follow a second-order rate equation: 169,170”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [169]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [170]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Molecular hydrogen occurs in two isomeric forms, orthohydrogen and para-hydrogen, differentiated by the nuclear spin”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.1 Mixture of ortho-& para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [130]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the technical challenges of scaling-up the necessary equipment (compressors, turbines and coldboxes) items are significant.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Liquid hydrogen's role in the value chain
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Three dominant types of hydrogen liquefaction system design or cycle are discussed in the literature: [193][194][195][196][197][198]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.1 Fundamentals of hydrogen liquefaction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [193]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [194]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [195]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [196]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [197]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [198]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Erroneous volumetric flow predictions can lead to, for example, a mismatch of blade angles in turbo machinery, lowering efficiencies and, potentially leading to mis-predictions of operational range.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The conversion constants can be correlated:”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [169]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To improve the simulation of liquefaction processes, Jacobsen et al. 158 recommended new measurements of density, speed of sound and heat capacity for normal hydrogen in the gaseous and liquid phases be acquired at temperatures below 50 K, while such measurements for parahydrogen be conducted above 100 K”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.3 Transport properties and experimental data needs
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [158]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“With decreasing temperature, the probability of a molecule being in a para-hydrogen state increases because of its lower energy, and consequently the equilibrium ortho-para ratio approaches zero.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [130]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Densities calculated from the Peng-Robinson and Helmholtz-energy EOS models differed by up to 10%, with the largest differences found at low temperatures.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (i) Linde-Hampson cycle; (ii) Claude cycle; and (iii)
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [212]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that para-hydrogen is non-magnetic, while ortho-hydrogen has a net local magnetic field, the rate of homogeneous ortho-topara conversion is dictated by collisions between orthohydrogen molecules.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Moreover, the conversion from normal to para-hydrogen is exothermic, releasing 525 kJ kg À1 of heat, which is larger than the enthalpy of vaporisation at liquid hydrogen's normal boiling point (448 kJ kg À1 ).[131][132][133]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [131]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [132]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [133]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Hutchinson 179 and Wilhelmsen et al. 182 found that a nickel oxide-silica catalyst doubled the catalytic activity of iron(III) oxide and reduced the cooling power consumption of the heat exchanger by 9%.182”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [179]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [182]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to eqn (2), the smallest energy difference between the para-and orthostates is approximately 2B 0 which corresponds to electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 3.6 THz and a wavelength of 0.083 mm.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 2.4 Conversion of ortho-hydrogen to para-hydrogen
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The state-of-the-art for describing the thermodynamic properties of such mixtures is the GERG-2008 EOS, 152 which provides a framework for calculating the Helmholtz energy of mixtures containing up to 21 components, including normal H 2 and the seven impurities listed above.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Mixtures with hydrogen and refrigerants.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [152]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The concept is dependent on the availability of LNG, its requirement to be regasified on site, and that it may be used at no additional cost.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Quack proposed a conceptual design 239 for a 170 TPD liquefier based on propane pre-cooling and helium-neon Brayton refrigeration cycles.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [239]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some conceptual processes use multiple stages of batch conversion to mimic continuous conversion largely because of the difficulty in quantifying the conversion kinetics.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Valenti and Macchi proposed a conceptual design 216 for a 864 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded Brayton refrigeration cycles using a helium refrigerant.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [216]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“however, additional heat exchangers and a more expensive expander were required.155”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [155]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, achieving the desired hydrogen effluent temperature of 80 K in one stage, and the potential freeze-out of the heaviest components in the refrigerants are limitations.202”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [202]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The SEC and exergy efficiency of this process are 6.2 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and 43%, respectively.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [210]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Typical SEC values for the Praxair plants are between ( 12.5 and 15) kWh kg LH 2À1 and the exergy efficiency is between (19.3 and 24)%.125”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [125]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a complex liquefaction process where a large supporting nitrogen liquefaction system is required to liquefy gaseous nitrogen after its use in the pre-cooling process.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Krasae-in 238 proposed a 100 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded hydrogen Brayton refrigeration cycles and a pre-cooling stage (to 80 K) using a five component refrigerant mixture.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [238]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Reported cryogenic expander efficiencies in the literature are between (80 and 90)%.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Other reported conceptual designs include the WE-NET process 190,210 with a nitrogen pre-cooling stage and a SEC of 8.72 kWh kg LH 2”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [190]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [210]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The following criteria were used to screen proposed processes for inclusion in Table 5: Scale Z50 TPD, SEC between 4 and 10 kWh kg LH 2 À1 , Exergy efficiency 423%, and Inclusion of novel but attainable technologies.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“A larger heat exchange surface area and volume can deliver higher exergy efficiency but imposes higher capital expenses.245,246”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [245]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [246]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Axial turbines have a higher efficiency than radial turbines (at Re 4 10 6 ), but attract a higher capital cost.255”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [255]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“For pure hydrogen, a large number of turbo-compressor stages are required to reach the desired pressure as shown by Quack 81 and Valenti and Macchi, 216,239 and thus would incur higher capital expenditure.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [81]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [216]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [239]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Krasae-in found that the addition of a pre-cooling stage reduced the compressor power required by the Claude cycle by (5 to 10)%;”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [155]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“however, turbine expanders are both complex and attract a higher capital expenditure.104,258”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [104]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [258]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Skaugen et al. 246 considered the use of spiral-wound heat exchangers for LH 2 production with a capacity of 125 TPD.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [246]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The reported SEC for the Leuna plant is 11.9 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and the exergy efficiency is 23.6%.131,217”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [131]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [217]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, Van Hoecke et al. 251 estimated that 30% of the energy required for the liquefaction of hydrogen is used to produce liquid nitrogen.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [251]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Such plate and fin heat exchangers are typically designed for pressures up to approximately 13 MPa.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Oilbearing systems require a continuous oil supply, oil pumps, and additional infrastructure for safe shutdown in the case of cycle failure.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Nitrogen is often a readily available fluid because hydrogen liquefiers are frequently sited close to air separation plants.182”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [182]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Radial turbines are advantageous in that the work recovered from a single stage is equivalent to that of two or more stages in an axial turbine.255”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [255]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Radial flow turbines and axial flow turbines are used for industrial liquefier expansion on the refrigeration side.254”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [254]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Conceptual plants designed for large scale may need to address potential challenges with respect to process fluid pressure drop through the catalyst packings.183,184,246,247”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [183]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [184]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [246]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These plants also implement modified pre-cooled Claude cycles that include three heat exchangers (Fig. 7): the first cools the hydrogen feed with both nitrogen gas and a refrigerant from an external cycle, the second uses liquid nitrogen and the hydrogen recycle stream as coolants, while the third exchanger is cooled with the hydrogen recycle stream alone.189”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [189]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The use of turbine expanders results in higher exergy efficiency 247 because mechanical energy from the rotation of the turbine can be recovered and a larger cooling effect is achieved.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [247]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Whilst piston compressors are state-of-the-art for industrial liquefiers, they are expensive and limited in attainable flow rate and efficiency.126”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Linde reported that the maximum size for LH 2 industrial heat exchangers is approximately 8.2 m  3.4 m  1.5 m, with a core volume of 15 to 30 m 3 and a specific surface of (500 to 2000) m 2 m À3 .242”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [242]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Common MR compositions include hydrogen, nitrogen, neon, helium, and hydrocarbons ranging from methane to butane.155”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [155]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Conceptual studies consider feed pressures in the range (0.1 to 2.5) MPa and compressor discharge pressures in the range ( 2.1 to 8) MPa, with feed temperature typically set to ambient.192”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Plate-fin heat exchangers (PFHE, Fig. 12) are used in industrial hydrogen liquefiers because of their high flexibility concerning the number of process channels (and hence capacity), large heat exchange surface area (42000 m 2 m À3 possible 242 ) coupled with comparatively small footprint, and comparatively low CAPEX.188,216,243”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [188]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [216]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [243]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to Cardella, the SEC increases to approximately 7.8-8.2kWh kg LH 2 À1 if the feed compression from (0.1 to 2) MPa is considered.126”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.3 Conceptual liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cardella notes that, owing to the large number of refrigeration cycles, the likely viability of this process for industrial applications is low.126”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The SEC of existing industrial hydrogen liquefiers ranges from ( 10 to 15 ) kWh kg LH 2 À1 or (35 to 45) % of the lower heating value of hydrogen, [124][125][126] with exergy efficiencies ranging from 20-30%.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [124]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [125]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“SINTEF reported a modified version of the process model 189,240 proposed by Quack where pre-cooling of the hydrogen stream is achieved by an MR comprising C1-C5, ethylene, nitrogen, neon, and R14.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [189]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [240]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Alternatively, exposing hydrogen to external magnetic fields can cause a temperature change and potentially liquefy it.[259][260][261]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [259]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [260]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [261]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Large insulated coldboxes can be erected in the field, however, vacuum-insulated coldboxes are typically pre-fabricated off-site and transported to the liquefier construction site; transportation weight and size limits can thus determine the possible coldbox size.126”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Challenges have been identified in determining the true efficiency of the process, owing to the high energy requirements of propane refrigeration.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Mixtures may also have better heat transfer properties and compression features than pure refrigerants.200”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [200]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to Cardella et al., 210 a specific energy consumption below 6 kWh kg LH 2 À1 could be achieved while reducing the specific liquefaction costs by 67% compared to smaller scale 5 TPD LH 2 plants; this process could be implemented in the next few years making it one of the most promising conceptual design currently available.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [210]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The model shown in Fig. 9 235 is a conceptual design of a 50 TPD liquefier based on a Claude cycle with precooling by LNG and nitrogen gas.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.3 Conceptual liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [235]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The SEC and exergy efficiency of this process are 6.7 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and 32%, respectively.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.3 Conceptual liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [221]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Praxair has five hydrogen liquefaction plants, all located in the USA, with capacities between 18 and 32 TPD.218”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [218]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this is a complex process requiring a large number of compressor stages (hence higher CAPEX) due to the low molar mass of helium.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Aluminium is the most common material used for these cryogenic heat exchangers, due to its comparatively high thermal conductivity and strength at low temperatures.192,243,244”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [243]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [244]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These differences provide a basis for optimism regarding the current prospects for hydrogen's ascendance to a prominent and central component of global energy supply chains.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and carbon capture and storage technologies are more mature.
- Rests on an assumption: The cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has dropped dramatically with the development of fuel cell technologies.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Slush hydrogen is produced via three key methods: (1) the spray method where liquid hydrogen is expanded, thus solidifying it, and mixed with liquid hydrogen; (2) the freeze-thaw method with a Dewar and vacuum pump; and (3) the Augur method (which uses helium refrigeration).317,318”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.3 Densification and slush hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [317]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [318]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Long-standing LNG and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) storage and transport standards may have the potential to cover relevant areas for the export of liquid hydrogen; however, this will require considerable review.332,333”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (fuel cell technology).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [332]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [333]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: While the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in understanding stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) released a safety code which provides fundamental safeguards for the generation, installation, storage, piping, use, and handling of hydrogen in compressed gas (GH 2 ) form or cryogenic liquid (LH 2 ) form.334”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (fuel cell technology).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [334]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These are dependent mainly on the liquefier efficiency 189 which is in turn highly dependent on the energy consumption of the selected liquefaction process and electricity price.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [189]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The development and application of effective and efficient engineering standards are the central tool to address the challenge of hydrogen safety.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
- Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen can cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.
- Rests on an assumption: Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases such as air and nitrogen to condense and solidify, which can cause blockages and failures in equipment.
- Rests on an assumption: Until hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.
In the paper
“Liquid hydrogen BOG losses can be on the order of 0.4% per day for a 50 m 3 cryogenic tank, and 0.06% per day for a 20 000 m 3 tank.271”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [271]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“At this stage, it is unclear whether increasing the scale of LH 2 production trains beyond 100 TPD would lead to further reductions in unit liquefaction costs.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [350]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [351]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [352]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“During LH 2 storage, Petitpas found that some temperature gradients may exist across the vessel (thermal stratification).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [276]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is not only motivated by energy security but also the need to decarbonise the world's energy system.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, hydrogen has a high propensity to ignite due to its wide flammability range (4 to 74 vol% in air) and very low ignition energy (0.017 mJ).251”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [251]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The support structure uses glass-fibre-reinforced plastic to minimise heat transfer.267”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [267]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However these methods of LH 2 transportation are limited by high energy use, boil-off losses and/or total capacity.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This phenomenon is the movement of the liquid in the vessel due to the motion of the carrier, and it can lead to significant boil-off.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [304]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Wijayanta et al. 98 projected a smaller liquefaction cost by 2030 of approximately 7.3 JPf per Nm 3 (0.76 US$ per kg H 2 ).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [98]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Many studies [290][291][292][293][294][295][296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303] have investigated possible ways to reduce boil-off losses and suggested that top fill (top spray) is probably the most effective way to reduce transfer losses, although more understanding of the underlying physics is needed.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [290]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [291]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [292]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A number of international technical committees now are responsible for drafting standards in specific fields.328”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [328]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ammonia is an alternative carrier to liquid hydrogen for storage and transport applications, which in contrast already has international supply chains established.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.3 Comparison with ammonia
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“This observation is consistent with the work published by Cardella et al. who found that SLC decreased by almost 60% with a 50 TPD plant or by 67% with a 100 TPD plant, compared with a 5 TPD plant.93,264”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [93]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [264]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Projections of annual global hydrogen demand in 2050 have reached as high as 621 million tonnes.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [129]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“NASA has more recently announced the construction of a 4732 m 3 , 327 tonne liquid hydrogen tank.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Conceptual approaches to BOG management have also investigated its use as a fuel, re-liquefying it or burning it.312”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [312]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The liquid hydrogen vessel is cylindrical and designed with a vacuum-insulated double-walled structure.267”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [267]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“NASA operates the largest current storage vessel (3800 m 3 ) for liquid hydrogen at Kennedy Space Centre, FL, USA with a storage capacity of 263 tonnes (if stored at 22 K and 0.15 MPa).265”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [265]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, a perlite void resulted in the venting of over 12 000 gallons per day of hydrogen.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Features of this system include zero boil-off and densified slush hydrogen production (mixture of liquid and solid hydrogen), which is detailed in Section 4.3.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [294]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Baffles may be installed in the tank to mitigate the effect.305”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [305]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Spherical tanks are used for storing larger volumes 132 because they provide a minimum surface-to-volume ratio, and a more uniform distribution of stresses and strains.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [132]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These leaks resulted in the solidification of air in the storage tank annulus, which subsequently liquefied (as LH 2 was removed from the tank) and cooled the vacuum jacket.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“International hydrogen standards already exist and continue to be developed 327”
- Also stated in: § both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). · plain
“both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [327]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). · plain
In the paper
“Safe road transport of liquid hydrogen can be achieved with existing technology; however, this is not at a scale comparable to the existing petroleum fuel distribution network.309”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [309]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A number of NASA launches have been halted due to hydrogen leaks, mostly in umbilicals.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In comparison, Kawasaki Heavy Industries has stated a liquefaction price of approximately 9.8 JPf per Nm 3 (1.1 US$ per kg H 2 ).102”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [102]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This phenomenon has been observed for spills of LNG on water, but is not well understood for liquid hydrogen.323”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [323]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Traditionally, slush hydrogen has only been investigated for use in space missions.[313][314][315][316]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.3 Densification and slush hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [313]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [314]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [315]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [316]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A boil-off rate of less than 0.4% per day was reported, with BOG being re-stored without venting to atmosphere.267”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [267]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Standards that govern the handling of liquid hydrogen at the point of use include ISO 13984 (Liquid hydrogen -land vehicle fuelling system interface) and ISO 13985 (Liquid hydrogen -land vehicle fuel tanks).329”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > (fuel cell technology).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [329]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Challenges specific to the LH 2 supply chain may similarly be placed in one or more of the four categories identified in the introduction: economics, cryogenic losses, scale and safety.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For demand to reach these levels, the levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH) associated with the entire value chain will need to decrease.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.2 Cost and scale-up of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, if hydrogen is to meet this expectation, a number of significant challenges will need to be overcome.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In 2015 the US Department of Energy reported the price for a 3500 m 3 liquid hydrogen tank was US$6.6 million (with a long-term target price of US$3.3 million).266”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [266]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It has been shown to spontaneously ignite on sudden release from pressurised containers, although the mechanism is not fully understood.323”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [323]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The project will inform future amendments to the IGC Code (International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk), including the potential to allow liquid hydrogen to be carried in bulk under the code without the requirement for special agreements.311”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [311]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within the broader context of the hydrogen value chain (Fig. 1) these challenges can generally be classified as relating to cost”
- Also stated in: § 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges · plain
“scale (e.g. the capacity to construct or convert national-scale infrastructure for hydrogen distribution), and the maintenance of social license (e.g.managing use conflicts over scarce waterresources).”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ensuring the safe operation of hydrogen value chains is a challenge that relates to both cost and the maintenance of social licence.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain Project (HESC), which intends to transport liquid hydrogen from the Port of Hastings in Victoria, Australia, to Kobe, Japan, will be the first commercial project to pilot liquid hydrogen maritime transport.311”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [311]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“General awareness of the Hindenburg disaster after more than 80 years is a stark example of how easily energy technologies can be substantially tarnished in the mind of the public, even if the accident's root cause had little to do with hydrogen per se.322”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [322]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Relevant standards for hydrogen liquefaction and storage include ISO/TC:22 329 (road vehicles), ISO/TC 197 330 (hydrogen technologies), and IEC/TC 105 331”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [329]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [330]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [331]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“BOG generation occurs at LH 2 plants and exporting terminal for several additional reasons.These include BOG generation due to depressurisation (flashing), heat ingress into transfer pipes, heat added by equipment such as pumps, and cooling down of LH 2 carrying vessels.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These tests will help inform the development and strengthening of engineering standards that further increase the safety of planned LH 2 supply chains.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Densification also allows for longer storage before boil-off, and increases cooling capacity when used as refrigerant.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.3 Densification and slush hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Additionally, heat ingress causes the vapor temperature to increase faster than that of the liquid due to the vapor's higher thermal diffusivity, resulting in heat conduction across the vapor-liquid interface and thus a temperature gradient in the top layer of the liquid phase known as thermal stratification.[277][278][279][280][281][282][283][284][285]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [277]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [278]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [279]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“PRESLHY 324 is currently conducting experimental work in hydrogen release and mixing, ignition, and combustion with a view to providing enhanced recommendations for safe design and operations of liquid hydrogen technologies.[324][325][326]”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [324]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [325]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [326]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For reference, Connelly et al. 109 estimated a liquefaction cost of 2.75 US$ per kg LH 2 for a 27 TPD plant in California (USA), which is based on current commercially available technology used in existing industrial liquefiers.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.5 Cost gap between existing and conceptual plants
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [109]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To date, transportation of liquid hydrogen occurs predominantly by truck, with capacities up to approximately 60 m 3 (E4150 kg).271”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.2 Liquid hydrogen transport
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [271]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Kawasaki Heavy Industries completed the construction of its LH 2 receiving terminal in the Port of Kobe in July 2020.267”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.1 Liquid hydrogen storage
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [267]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This phenomenon decreased the tank wall temperature below its ductility limits, thereby cracking the vacuum jacket; 86 it could have been prevented by draining the tank more slowly whilst heating the outer vessel with water.86”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.1 Safety of liquid hydrogen supply chains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This can offer potential reductions in size and mass of storage systems and transport vessels, and/or enable the transport of larger quantities in a given volume.297”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 4.3 Densification and slush hydrogen
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [297]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These categories are clearly inter-related with, for example, safety requirements and the magnitude of cryogenic losses associated with liquid hydrogen storage inherently impacting its economics.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Decomposition back to H 2 adds approximately 0.67 US$ per kg H 2 60 giving a total cost of ( 1.5-2.9)US$ for each kg of hydrogen transported as NH 3 .”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > ) kWh kg H 2
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [60]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [98]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ortho-para conversion will be more efficient using catalysts with better characterised kinetics integrated into heat exchanger designs that reduce the associated pressure drop.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Location and plant capacity are two factors influencing ammonia production cost, which range from 0.21-0.40US$ per kg NH 3 in Western Europe to as little as 0.14 US$ per kg NH 3 on the US Gulf Coast.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > ) kWh kg H 2
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [114]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To progress many of the research and development priorities listed under Liquefaction or Storage & Transport, improved quantitative descriptions of the fluids, catalysts and other key materials used in liquefaction are needed over a wide range of conditions.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.4 Research, development & demonstration priorities for liquid hydrogen supply chains
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hydrogen liquefaction plants that achieve these targets will likely use mixed-refrigerants in both the pre-cooling and cryogenic stages of a Brayton cycle, integrated and modular cold box configurations, high-efficiency turbo compressors on the refrigerant-side, and oil-free expanders for the H 2 side.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, multiple challenges exist to the growth of liquid hydrogen, which can be placed within the broad categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whilst it is one several technologies available, including ammonia and liquid organic carriers, LH 2 offers several advantages including being an immediately pure product at the point of use.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Improved models for quantitative predictions of thermal stratification, interfacial heat transfer, tank geometry, pressure and the resulting LH 2 boil off rate in large storage tanks will be essential.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, if large-scale liquid hydrogen supply chains are to become a reality, addressing the challenge of safety will be vital through a combination of standards development and improved technologies for automatically detecting and eliminating hydrogen leaks and fires.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thermophysical property data for hydrogen and its mixtures are needed at temperatures from 20 K to 300 K and pressures from ambient to 8 MPa.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Energy & Environmental Science
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These targets should be achievable if liquefaction train capacities can be increased to around 100 TPD or larger.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the underlying science and basic engineering requirements for hydrogen liquefaction are known, significant limitations exist regarding the quantification of key properties needed for improved technical solutions.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.4 Research, development & demonstration priorities for liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Avoiding hydrogen leaks is one of the most difficult but important challenges that must be overcome to ensure sustained safe operations.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.4 Research, development & demonstration priorities for liquid hydrogen supply chains
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, practical solutions to multiple challenges in the four categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale presented in this paper will be required if large-scale LH 2 supply chains are to be established.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.4 Research, development & demonstration priorities for liquid hydrogen supply chains
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two key targets for future liquid hydrogen supply chains are (i) reducing the specific liquefaction cost to around (1-2) US$ per kg H 2 and (ii) lowering the specific energy consumption of the liquefaction process to between (6 and 8) kWh kg H 2 À1 .”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 6 Conclusions and outlook
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Wijayanta et al. 98 predicted an imported cost, including hydrogen production from SMR, of ammonia from Australia to Japan by 2030 of around 0.44 US$ per kg NH 3 (2.5 US$ per kg H 2 ) if ammonia can be used directly, and a total cost of 0.563 US$ per kg NH 3 (3.2US$ per kg H 2 ), when ammonia is decomposed back to hydrogen.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [98]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Using conservative costs for currently available technologies, Ishimoto et al. 360 found that the LH 2 supply chain costs ranged from (4.8 to 6.8 US$ per kg H 2 ), which were generally below those of NH 3 (6.1 to 6.6 US$ per kg H 2 ), except for the longest distance supply chain.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [360]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accurate assessment of pressurisation dynamics, thermal stratification and boil-off rates are critical for the design and operation of transfer lines and storage tanks that minimise both LH 2 losses and hazards to safety.”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 5.4 Research, development & demonstration priorities for liquid hydrogen supply chains
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.
“There is increasing consensus that hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Storing and transporting hydrogen energy over long time scales and distances requires a physical or chemical conversion process to achieve a viable energy density.
“While the production stage usually generates gaseous H 2 , storing and transporting the associated energy over long time scales and distances requires the implementation of a physical or chemical conversion process within the 3rd stage of the value chain to achieve a viable energy density.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The very-high purity requirements of H2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.
“The very-high purity requirements of H 2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.
“Scale: currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.
“Safety: liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.
“Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.
“Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.
“Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The overall heat exchanger size is limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.
“The overall heat exchanger size is, however, limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.
“Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.”
The paper relies on this without support.
While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as relevant working fluids.
“While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as the relevant working fluid.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.
“Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.
“Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To date, industrial liquefiers have been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.
“To date, industrial liquefiers has been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.
“Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Liquefaction capacity plays a major role in the cost breakdown.
“Liquefaction capacity also plays a major role in the cost breakdown.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To date, such efficiency (6.4 kWh/kg) has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.
“To date, such efficiency has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Turbo compressors are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.
“which are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.
“Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.”
The paper relies on this without support.
These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.
“These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the NASA Space Shuttle program, over 24,500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.
“where over 24 500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.
“Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.
“Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ullage space is typically ~10% of the internal volume of the tank.
“Ullage space is typically r10% of the internal volume of the tank.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.
“This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.
“This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.
“This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.
“Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and carbon capture and storage technologies are more mature.
“Additionally, the cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and CCS technologies are also more mature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has dropped dramatically with the development of fuel cell technologies.
“Finally, the cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has also dropped dramatically with the development, for example, of fuel cell technologies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
“Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hydrogen can cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.
“Hydrogen can also cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases such as air and nitrogen to condense and solidify, which can cause blockages and failures in equipment.
“Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases (such as air and nitrogen) to condense and solidify -this can cause blockages and failures in equipment.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Until hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.
“Until the hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.
“Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are, however, still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.”
The paper relies on this without support.
While the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in understanding stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.
“Whilst the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in the understanding of stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.
“the world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.
“based on the averages across the studies considered in Table 9”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, some authors have suggested that the introduction of an LN2 pre-cooling unit upstream of the liquefaction zone could lead to an increase in EXE of about 50-70% [94] since the mechanical energy of the turbine rotation can be recovered and better cooling is achieved [83].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“According to Aasadnia et al. [86], the specific energy consumption (SEC) of liquefaction plants is usually around 10-15 kWh/kg LH2 while EXE values are between 19 % and 24 % [6,86-89].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems are those with higher production rates (>100 tonne/day), higher efficiency (>40%), lower SEC (<6 kWh/kgLH2), and lower investment costs (1–2 $/kgLH2).”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [59]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In industrial H2 liquefaction processes, both types of expanders are used on the refrigeration side [89].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The maximum LH2 production of existing plants worldwide is about 32 ton/day per liquefaction train [89].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As discussed previously, this reaction is accompanied by heat release, which is greater than the latent heat of vaporization [82-84].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [83]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Existing liquefaction systems use adsorbents to remove impurities, which may not be suitable for large systems (i.e., >50 TPD).59”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [59]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The two main purposes for the supply chain of liquid H2 in the future are decreasing the specific liquefaction cost and the SEC to 1–2 US$/kgH2 and 6–8 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.59”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [59]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“The SEC of existing industrial hydrogen liquefiers ranges from ( 10 to 15 ) kWh kg LH 2 À1 or (35 to 45) % of the lower heating value of hydrogen”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > 3.2 Industrial liquefaction processes and technology
Reported 35 · recomputed 30.03003
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > À1
“Other reported conceptual designs include the WE-NET process 190,210 with a nitrogen pre-cooling stage and a SEC of 8.72 kWh kg LH 2”
§ Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities > Review Energy & Environmental Science
“| WE-NET, | 2004 190,210 | Conceptual | LN 2 pre-cooled | Claude | 300 | 8.53 | 46% | | | |”
Citations
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“Currently, there are only plants available at a capacity below 100 tons per day [44, 55, 56].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Al Ghafri, S. Z., Munro, S., Cardella, U., Funke, T., Notardonato, W., Trusler, J. P. M., Leachman, J., Span, R., Kamiya, S., Pearce, G., Swanger, A., Rodriguez, E. D., Bajada, P., Jiao, F., Peng, K., Siahvashi, A., Johns, M. L., & May, E. F.
- Affiliations
- Fluid Science and Resources Division, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Kempten University of Applied Sciences (DE)
- FormFactor (Germany) (DE)
- MitaVista, the Space Life Science Lab Suite 201C, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, FL 32953, USA
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Washington State University (US)
- Ruhr University Bochum (DE)
- Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd, 1-1, Kawasaki-cho, Akashi-City, 673-8666, Japan
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Kennedy Space Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- May, Eric F.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Energy & Environmental Science
- Publisher
- Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
- Published
- 2022
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2690-2731
- ISSN
- 1754-5692 (ISSN-L)
- 1754-5706
- OpenAlex
- W4225906509
- Cited by
- 561
- References
- 248
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 147 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 11
- FWCI
- 45.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Energy & Environmental Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
- Australian Research Council (FT180100572, IC150100019)
- Cooperative Research Centres, Australian Government Department of Industry (CRCXXI000008)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Hydrogen Storage and Materials
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
- Keywords
- hydrogen liquefaction, hydrogen energy carriers, decarbonization, cryogenic hydrogen storage, liquefied natural gas
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