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Cited by 561Spacecraft and Cryogenic TechnologiesHydrogen Storage and MaterialsHybrid Renewable Energy Systems

Hydrogen liquefaction: a review of the fundamental physics, engineering practice and future opportunities

Open access
Al Ghafri, Saif ZS., Munro, Stephanie, Cardella, Umberto, Funke, Thomas, Notardonato, William, Trusler, J. P. Martin, Leachman, Jacob, Span, Roland +10 more·2022·Energy & Environmental Science
DOI 10.1039/d2ee00099g
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Abstract

Hydrogen is emerging as one of the most promising energy carriers for a decarbonised global energy system.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes the fundamental physics, engineering practice, and future opportunities for liquid hydrogen liquefaction across the value chain. It identifies economics, cryogenic losses, safety, and scale as key barriers, and sets targets of 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ specific energy consumption and 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ specific liquefaction cost with scale-up to around 100 TPD.

Key findings

  • Current industrial liquefiers have specific energy consumption (SEC) of 11.9–15 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹, or 35–45% of hydrogen’s lower heating value, with exergy efficiencies of 20–30%; specific liquefaction cost (SLC) is 2.5–3.0 US$ per kg LH₂. The largest single liquefier is 32 TPD, and total global capacity is about 350 TPD.
  • Conceptual designs report SECs of 4–14 kWh kg LH₂⁻¹; examples include IDEALHY at 50 TPD with 6.7 kWh kg⁻¹ and 32% exergy efficiency, HP-H₂ at 100 TPD with 6.2 kWh kg⁻¹ and 43%, and the Kuendig model at 4 kWh kg⁻¹. The review targets 6–8 kWh kg⁻¹ and SLC of 1–2 US$ kg⁻¹ at capacities around 100 TPD or larger.
  • Ortho-para conversion is central: normal hydrogen is 75% ortho and 25% para; conversion to para-hydrogen releases 525 kJ kg⁻¹, larger than the 448 kJ kg⁻¹ enthalpy of vaporisation at the normal boiling point. Without catalyst, conversion can take days or weeks, and the heat of conversion can evaporate more than 70% of stored liquid hydrogen.
  • Boil-off losses can consume up to 40% of liquid hydrogen’s available combustion energy; NASA’s Space Shuttle program purchased over 24,500 tonnes of LH₂, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishment. Reported BOG losses are about 0.4% per day for a 50 m³ tank and 0.06% per day for a 20,000 m³ tank.

Methods

  • Narrative review covering the liquid hydrogen value chain: molecular hydrogen properties, ortho-para conversion, thermodynamic and transport property models, industrial and conceptual liquefaction processes, storage and transport, safety, standards, costs, and R&D priorities.
  • Compiles comparative tables of hydrogen production costs, hydrogen vector properties, critical properties, liquefaction plants, conceptual processes, liquefaction costs, insulation methods, and suggested R&D priorities.
  • Includes a process simulation example for a 5 TPD Brayton refrigeration cycle using helium, comparing the Peng-Robinson EOS with a reference Helmholtz EOS; the two EOS gave 91 TPD vs 110 TPD helium flow (21% difference) and 5.5 vs 6.8 kWh kg⁻¹ SEC (23% difference).

Limitations

  • The paper states that its list of research, development, and demonstration priorities is non-exhaustive and reflects an informed yet subjective perspective based on current knowledge and discussions with industry experts.
  • The paper notes that conceptual liquefaction models do not generally fully consider total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale up component unit operations; current approved future liquefiers do not exceed about 30 TPD per single train.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, it presents no new primary experimental data except the simulation example, and many cost and performance projections depend on literature assumptions with wide variation, such as distribution costs ranging from 0 to 8.2 US$ per kg H₂.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1039/d2ee00099g

Cites

255 of 255 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 340 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In a simulation of a hydrogen liquefaction cryogenic process (5 TPD, T: 104 K to 20 K, p: 3 MPa) using a basic Brayton refrigeration cycle with pure gaseous helium as refrigerant (T: 104 K to 19 K, p: 8 MPa), the helium mass flow rate calculated using the PR EOS and the reference Helmholtz EOS of Ortiz-Vega et al. were 91 TPD vs 110 TPD, a 21% difference.

    “The helium mass flow rate and SEC calculated using the two different EOS were 91 TPD vs 110 TPD (21% difference) and 5.5 kWh kg À1 vs. 6.8 kWh kg À1 (23% difference), respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [213]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [214]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [215]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingreasoning

    The minimum ideal specific energy consumption for hydrogen liquefaction, given inlet and outlet hydrogen pressure of 0.101 MPa, inlet hydrogen temperature of 303 K, ambient temperature of 298 K, and inlet and outlet para-hydrogen mole fractions of 25% and 99.8%, is 3.9 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen.

    “This evaluates to 3.9 kWh kg LH 2 À1 given the following specifications: 126 Inlet and outlet hydrogen pressure: 0.101 MPa; Inlet hydrogen temperature: 303 K; Ambient temperature: 298 K, and Inlet and outlet para-hydrogen mole fractions: 25% and 99.8%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Limited consideration is given in conceptual plants to total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale-up component unit operations.

    “However, limited consideration is given to total installed and operational costs or the technical maturity and ability to scale-up the component unit operations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    There is no evidence of turbo compressors currently being used in industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants.

    “There is no evidence of turbo compressors currently being used in industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingreasoning

    Realistically attainable coldbox dimensions can be a constraint on large-scale liquefiers proposed by conceptual studies.

    “Realistically attainable coldbox dimensions can, however, be a constraint on the large-scale liquefiers proposed by conceptual studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 109
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 100
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the same simulation, the specific energy consumption calculated using the PR EOS and the reference Helmholtz EOS were 5.5 kWh per kg and 6.8 kWh per kg, a 23% difference.

    “The helium mass flow rate and SEC calculated using the two different EOS were 91 TPD vs 110 TPD (21% difference) and 5.5 kWh kg À1 vs. 6.8 kWh kg À1 (23% difference), respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [213]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [214]

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    • cites [215]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The capacity of conceptual hydrogen liquefaction plants ranges from 5 to 864 TPD.

    “The capacity of these conceptual plants ranges from (5 to 864) TPD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Pre-cooling is a hallmark of all industrial and conceptual processes in Table 5.

    “Pre-cooling is a hallmark of all industrial and conceptual process in Table 5.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More than fifty industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants have been constructed since 1952, with more than fifteen industrial plants constructed or proposed since 2000.

    “More than fifty industrial hydrogen liquefaction plants have been constructed since 1952, with more than fifteen industrial plants constructed or proposed since 2000, as shown in Table 4.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Commercial catalysts are used in both the pre-cooling stage (where liquid nitrogen is often used as the refrigerant) and the cryogenic stages before the final expansion in hydrogen liquefaction plants.

    “Commercial catalysts are used in both the pre-cooling stage (where LN 2 is often used as the refrigerant) and the cryogenic stages before the final expansion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Recently-constructed hydrogen liquefaction plants are based on modified Claude cycles and use catalyst-packed heat exchangers for continuous ortho-para conversion.

    “Recently-constructed plants are based on modified Claude cycles and use catalyst-packed heat exchangers (for continuous ortho-para conversion).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Key limitations regarding heat exchanger design are excessive pressure drop through the catalyst bed and the ability to model quantitatively conversion kinetics while incorporating relevant heat and mass transfer limitations.

    “Key limitations regarding heat exchanger design are excessive pressure drop through the catalyst bed and the ability to model quantitatively conversion kinetics while incorporating relevant heat and mass transfer limitations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Conceptual plants are designed to provide lower SEC and higher exergy efficiency, as summarised in Fig. 11.

    “Conceptual plants are designed to provide lower SEC and higher exergy efficiency, as summarised in Fig. 11.126”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Most of the conceptual processes identified in Table 5 utilise a turbine expander both on the hydrogen and refrigeration side; however little detail as to the type to be deployed is provided.

    “Most of the conceptual processes identified in Table 5 utilise a turbine expander both on the hydrogen and refrigeration side; however little detail as to the type to be deployed is provided.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    From Table 5, piston and turbo/centrifugal compressors are widely considered in conceptual processes.

    “From Table 5, it is evident that piston and turbo/centrifugal compressors are widely considered in conceptual processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The most variable component across the literature studies is the distribution cost, which ranges from 0 to 8.2 US$ per kg H2.

    “The most variable component across the literature studies is the distribution cost, which ranges from 0 for several studies where it was not considered at all to Energy & Environmental Science Review 8.2 US$ per kg H 2 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    BoilFAST results for the 12.5 m3 liquid hydrogen storage tank were in excellent agreement with those calculated by Petitpas and provided additional predictions such as BOG relief rate.

    “The BoilFAST results for the 12.5 m 3 LH 2 storage tank were in excellent agreement with those calculated by Petitpas and provided additional predictions such as BOG relief rate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Specific liquefaction costs generally decrease with increasing plant capacity; however, this depends largely on the electricity cost which varied between 40 and 120 US$/MWh across these studies.

    “As shown in Fig. 14, specific liquefaction costs generally decrease with increasing plant capacity; however, this depends largely on the electricity cost which varied between (40 and 120) US$ per MW h across these studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The liquefaction and transport cost components have comparatively smaller variances than production and distribution and are the third and fourth largest contributors to the LCOH of liquid hydrogen supply chains.

    “The liquefaction and transport cost components have comparatively smaller variances than those of production and distribution and, based on the averages across the studies considered in Table 9, are the third and fourth largest contributors to the LCOH of the liquid hydrogen supply chains, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Supply chains that involve maritime transport over distances of 1000 km or more had average transport costs of 0.14 US$ per kg H2 per 1000 km, while over shorter distances (80 to 500 km) transport costs increased to 4.78 US$ per kg H2 per 1000 km.

    “Supply chains that involve maritime transport over distances of 1000 km or more had average transport costs of 0.14 US$ per kg H 2 per 1000 km, while over shorter distances (80 to 500 km) transport costs increased to 4.78 US$ per kg H 2 per 1000 km.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Existing liquefiers produce liquid hydrogen at 2.5-3 US$/kg LH2, while some conceptual designs are projected to produce liquid hydrogen below 1 US$/kg LH2.

    “While existing liquefiers produce liquid hydrogen at (2.5 and 3) US$$ per kg LH 2 , some conceptual designs are projected to produce liquid hydrogen below 1 US$$ per kg LH 2 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    On average, the daily BOG amount was calculated by both methods to be 5 kg (less than 0.5% volume loss per day).

    “On average, the daily BOG amount was calculated by both methods to be 5 kg (less than 0.5% volume loss per day).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    A relatively large body of experimental data exists for the density, thermal conductivity and viscosity of hydrogen, but their coverage of the conditions relevant to liquefaction are in some cases inadequate, and many of the data sets have significant scatter with few of the original articles providing a sufficiently detailed uncertainty analysis.

    “As detailed in Section 2, a relatively large body of experimental data exists for the density, thermal conductivity and viscosity of hydrogen.”
    • Also stated in: § Energy & Environmental Science · plain
      “However, their coverage of the conditions relevant to liquefaction are in some cases inadequate, and many of the data sets have significant scatter with few of the original articles providing a sufficiently detailed uncertainty analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Current commercial processes have SECs from (11.9 to 15) kWh kg H2−1 (or 35 to 45% of the stored energy content), and SLCs around (2.5-3) US$ per kg H2, which is larger than the current cost of producing blue hydrogen.

    “Current commercial processes have SECs from (11.9 to 15) kWh kg H 2 À1 (or 35 to 45% of the stored energy content), and SLCs around (2.5-3) US$ per kg H 2 , which is larger than the current cost of producing blue hydrogen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Currently, global liquefaction capacity is around 350 TPD with a further 96 TPD planned; the capacity of the largest single train is 32 TPD.

    “Currently, global liquefaction capacity is around 350 TPD with a further 96 TPD planned; the capacity of the largest single train is 32 TPD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Improving efficiencies and cost reductions in renewable energy generation and green hydrogen production suggest a cost curve trajectory that may bring them into line with blue hydrogen in the coming decade.

    “Nevertheless, the improving efficiencies and costreductions occurring in renewable energy generation and green hydrogen production suggest a cost curve trajectory that may bring them into line with blue hydrogen in the coming decade.59”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pairing hydrogen produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage (CCS) can increase the associated cost by up to 54% while reducing CO2 emissions.

    “Pairing hydrogen produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage (CCS) 5 (to produce so-called blue hydrogen) can increase the associated cost by up to 54% while reducing CO 2 emissions.37”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Green hydrogen production technologies are still limited in scale and their energy consumption is not yet cost-competitive.

    “Green hydrogen production technologies [38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56] (from renewable energy sources together with electrolysis, solar thermochemical splitting and biochemical processes) also face significant challenges as they are still limited in scale, ‡ 58 and their energy consumption is not yet costcompetitive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [38]

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    • cites [39]

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    • cites [40]

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    • cites [41]

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    • cites [42]

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    • cites [43]

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    • cites [44]

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    • cites [45]

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    • cites [46]

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    • cites [47]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Park et al. found that pressure drop in a catalyst-packed heat exchanger using a cylinder filled with commercial IONEX catalyst is almost linearly dependent on space velocity (up to 1 bar pressure drop at velocity of 5 m/s) and approximately five times lower than predicted using the Ergun equation.

    “Park et al. 184 studied the pressure drop in a catalyst-packed heat exchanger using a cylinder filled with commercial IONEX s catalyst.It was found that the pressure drop is almost linearly dependent on space velocity (up to 1 bar pressure drop at velocity of 5 m s À1 ) and approximately five times lower than that predicted using the Ergun equation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [184]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    New, high-quality data for multicomponent refrigerant mixtures are needed to improve the reliability of the equations of state used in process simulations, which in turn could reduce design margins and cost.

    “A general conclusion is that new, high-quality data for multicomponent refrigerant mixtures are needed to improve the reliability of the equations of state used in process simulations, which in turn could reduce design margins and cost.[203][204][205][206]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [203]

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    • cites [204]

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    • cites [205]

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    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Historically, the Brayton refrigeration cycle has only been considered appropriate for small-scale plants; however, more recent literature has considered its expanded use in larger-scale systems.

    “Historically, the Brayton refrigeration cycle has only been considered appropriate for small-scale plants; however, more recent literature has considered its expanded use in larger-scale systems.124,131”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [124]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [131]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Current hydrogen liquefaction processes have specific energy consumptions (SEC) of between 11.9 and 15 kWh/kg LH2, which is 35 to 45% of the lower heating value of hydrogen.

    “Current processes have specific energy consumptions (SEC ¶) of between (11.9 and 15) kWh kg LH 2 À1 which is (35 to 45)% of the lower heating value of hydrogen.[124][125][126]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [124]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [125]

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    • cites [126]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Milenko et al. determined the rate constants from the time required to convert hydrogen samples from 75% to 68% ortho-hydrogen.

    “the rate constants determined by Milenko et al. were determined from the time required to convert hydrogen samples from 75% to 68% ortho-hydrogen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [169]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Differences in thermal conductivity have been used as a basis for measurements of the ortho-para ratio in a sample of hydrogen, particularly in the temperature range 50 to 250 K.

    “Differences in thermal conductivity have been used as a basis for measurements of the ortho-para ratio in a sample of hydrogen, particularly in the temperature range (50 to 250) K.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Annual global hydrogen demand is projected to reach 621 million tonnes, with the majority being used in the transportation sector.

    “annual global demand is projected to reach 621 million tonnes, with the majority being used in the transportation sector.88”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Global hydrogen production is approximately 75 million tonnes per year.

    “However, while global hydrogen production is now approximately 75 million tonnes per year, 87”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [87]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    LH2 is usually stored at 20-23 K (0.1-0.2 MPa) with a para-hydrogen fraction greater than 98%.

    “LH 2 is usually stored at 20-23 K (0.1-0.2 MPa) with a para-hydrogen fraction greater than 98%.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In typical catalyst packings, many micro-cavities are formed within the porous material.

    “In typical catalyst packings, many such micro-cavities are formed within the porous material.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IONEX is a commercially available catalyst used widely by industry for ortho-para conversion that functions via spin conversion at magnetically-ordered surfaces.

    “IONEX s is a commercially available catalyst used widely by industry for ortho-para conversion that functions via the mechanism of spin conversion at magnetically-ordered surfaces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [173]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Both the experimental data situation and the accuracy of predictive models are worse for the transport properties of hydrogen and its mixtures.

    “Both the experimental data situation and, consequently, the accuracy of predictive models are worse for the transport properties of hydrogen and its mixtures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    By 2050, the Hydrogen Council has estimated that 10% of total hydrogen demand, or 0.17 million tonnes per day, could be transported by sea.

    “By 2050, the Hydrogen Council has estimated that 10% of total hydrogen demand, or 0.17 million tonnes per day, could be transported by sea.129”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [129]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Exposure of IONEX to trace impurities during operation can result in catalyst poisoning (H2S, mercaptans) or gradual deactivation (N2, H2O, COx, NOx).

    “Exposure to trace impurities during operation can result in catalyst poisoning (H 2 S, mercaptans) or gradual deactivation (N 2 , H 2 O, CO x , NO x ).174”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [174]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Liquid hydrogen has a relatively high volumetric hydrogen density, 80% greater than gaseous H2 compressed to 70 MPa, and 50% greater than methylcyclohexane.

    “An additional advantage of liquid hydrogen over other possible vectors include its relatively high volumetric hydrogen density (80% greater than gaseous H 2 compressed to 70 MPa, and 50% greater than methylcyclohexane).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the presence of ortho-para conversion catalysts the kinetics are approximately first order with full conversion achieved in minutes.

    “In the presence of such catalysts the kinetics are approximately first order with full conversion achieved in minutes.[134][135][136]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [134]

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    • cites [135]

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    • cites [136]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IONEX is a porous particulate catalyst composed of Fe2O3 with a surface area around 216 m2/g and particle sizes between 0.3 and 0.6 mm.

    “IONEX s is a porous particulate catalyst composed of Fe 2 O 3 with a surface area around 216 m 2 g À1 and particle (mesh) sizes between 0.3 and 0.6 mm.134”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Linde-Hampson cycle is one of the oldest (1895) cycles used to liquefy gases, is characterised by low efficiency compared with other systems, and is only considered appropriate for small-scale (<2 TPD) systems.

    “The Linde-Hampson is one of the oldest (1895) cycles used to liquefy gases and is characterised by low efficiency compared with other systems; it is only considered appropriate for small-scale (o2 TPD) systems.131,199”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [131]

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    • cites [199]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The GERG-2008 EOS was developed for natural gas mixtures, with the primary focus being CH4 dominant systems with H2 considered only as an impurity.

    “However, the GERG-2008 EOS was developed for natural gas mixtures, with the primary focus being CH 4 dominant systems with H 2 considered only as an impurity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The transition rates for homogeneous ortho-para conversion depend on the concentration and temperature of orthohydrogen molecules and follow a second-order rate equation.

    “The resulting transition rates are therefore dependent on the concentration and temperature of the orthohydrogen molecules present, and follow a second-order rate equation: 169,170”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [169]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [170]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Molecular hydrogen occurs in two isomeric forms, orthohydrogen and para-hydrogen, differentiated by the nuclear spin state of the protons in each hydrogen atom.

    “Molecular hydrogen occurs in two isomeric forms, orthohydrogen and para-hydrogen, differentiated by the nuclear spin”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The technical challenges of scaling-up the necessary equipment (compressors, turbines and coldboxes) are significant.

    “However, the technical challenges of scaling-up the necessary equipment (compressors, turbines and coldboxes) items are significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Three dominant types of hydrogen liquefaction system design or cycle are discussed in the literature: Linde-Hampson, Claude, and Brayton refrigeration cycles.

    “Three dominant types of hydrogen liquefaction system design or cycle are discussed in the literature: [193][194][195][196][197][198]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [193]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [194]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [195]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [196]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [197]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [198]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Erroneous volumetric flow predictions can lead to a mismatch of blade angles in turbo machinery, lowering efficiencies and potentially leading to mis-predictions of operational range.

    “Erroneous volumetric flow predictions can lead to, for example, a mismatch of blade angles in turbo machinery, lowering efficiencies and, potentially leading to mis-predictions of operational range.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The conversion constants k and k' can be correlated by eqns (5) and (6) with specified parameter values.

    “The conversion constants can be correlated:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [169]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Jacobsen et al. recommended new measurements of density, speed of sound and heat capacity for normal hydrogen in the gaseous and liquid phases at temperatures below 50 K, while such measurements for parahydrogen be conducted above 100 K.

    “To improve the simulation of liquefaction processes, Jacobsen et al. 158 recommended new measurements of density, speed of sound and heat capacity for normal hydrogen in the gaseous and liquid phases be acquired at temperatures below 50 K, while such measurements for parahydrogen be conducted above 100 K”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [158]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With decreasing temperature, the probability of a molecule being in a para-hydrogen state increases because of its lower energy, and consequently the equilibrium ortho-para ratio approaches zero.

    “With decreasing temperature, the probability of a molecule being in a para-hydrogen state increases because of its lower energy, and consequently the equilibrium ortho-para ratio approaches zero.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Densities calculated from the Peng-Robinson and Helmholtz-energy EOS models differed by up to 10%, with the largest differences found at low temperatures.

    “Densities calculated from the Peng-Robinson and Helmholtz-energy EOS models differed by up to 10%, with the largest differences found at low temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [212]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The rate of homogeneous ortho-to-para conversion is dictated by collisions between orthohydrogen molecules because para-hydrogen is non-magnetic and ortho-hydrogen has a net local magnetic field.

    “Given that para-hydrogen is non-magnetic, while ortho-hydrogen has a net local magnetic field, the rate of homogeneous ortho-topara conversion is dictated by collisions between orthohydrogen molecules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The conversion from normal to para-hydrogen is exothermic, releasing 525 kJ/kg of heat, which is larger than the enthalpy of vaporisation at liquid hydrogen's normal boiling point (448 kJ/kg).

    “Moreover, the conversion from normal to para-hydrogen is exothermic, releasing 525 kJ kg À1 of heat, which is larger than the enthalpy of vaporisation at liquid hydrogen's normal boiling point (448 kJ kg À1 ).[131][132][133]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [131]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [132]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [133]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hutchinson and Wilhelmsen et al. found that a nickel oxide-silica catalyst doubled the catalytic activity of iron(III) oxide and reduced the cooling power consumption of the heat exchanger by 9%.

    “Hutchinson 179 and Wilhelmsen et al. 182 found that a nickel oxide-silica catalyst doubled the catalytic activity of iron(III) oxide and reduced the cooling power consumption of the heat exchanger by 9%.182”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [179]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [182]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    According to eqn (2), the smallest energy difference between para- and ortho-states is approximately 2B0, corresponding to electromagnetic radiation with frequency 3.6 THz and wavelength 0.083 mm.

    “According to eqn (2), the smallest energy difference between the para-and orthostates is approximately 2B 0 which corresponds to electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 3.6 THz and a wavelength of 0.083 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The state-of-the-art for describing the thermodynamic properties of mixtures with impurities is the GERG-2008 EOS, which provides a framework for calculating the Helmholtz energy of mixtures containing up to 21 components, including normal H2 and seven impurities.

    “The state-of-the-art for describing the thermodynamic properties of such mixtures is the GERG-2008 EOS, 152 which provides a framework for calculating the Helmholtz energy of mixtures containing up to 21 components, including normal H 2 and the seven impurities listed above.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Kuendig et al. concept is dependent on the availability of LNG, its requirement to be regasified on site, and that it may be used at no additional cost.

    “The concept is dependent on the availability of LNG, its requirement to be regasified on site, and that it may be used at no additional cost.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Quack proposed a conceptual design for a 170 TPD liquefier based on propane pre-cooling and helium-neon Brayton refrigeration cycles.

    “Quack proposed a conceptual design 239 for a 170 TPD liquefier based on propane pre-cooling and helium-neon Brayton refrigeration cycles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [239]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Some conceptual processes use multiple stages of batch conversion to mimic continuous conversion largely because of the difficulty in quantifying the conversion kinetics.

    “Some conceptual processes use multiple stages of batch conversion to mimic continuous conversion largely because of the difficulty in quantifying the conversion kinetics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Valenti and Macchi proposed a conceptual design for an 864 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded Brayton refrigeration cycles using a helium refrigerant.

    “Valenti and Macchi proposed a conceptual design 216 for a 864 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded Brayton refrigeration cycles using a helium refrigerant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [216]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The addition of a pre-cooling stage to the Claude cycle required additional heat exchangers and a more expensive expander.

    “however, additional heat exchangers and a more expensive expander were required.155”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Achieving the desired hydrogen effluent temperature of 80 K in one stage and the potential freeze-out of the heaviest components in the refrigerants are limitations.

    “However, achieving the desired hydrogen effluent temperature of 80 K in one stage, and the potential freeze-out of the heaviest components in the refrigerants are limitations.202”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [202]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The specific energy consumption and exergy efficiency of the HP-H2 cycle with MRC are 6.2 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen and 43%, respectively.

    “The SEC and exergy efficiency of this process are 6.2 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and 43%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [210]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Typical specific energy consumption values for the Praxair plants are between 12.5 and 15 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen and the exergy efficiency is between 19.3 and 24%.

    “Typical SEC values for the Praxair plants are between ( 12.5 and 15) kWh kg LH 2À1 and the exergy efficiency is between (19.3 and 24)%.125”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [125]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The WE-NET process is complex and requires a large supporting nitrogen liquefaction system to liquefy gaseous nitrogen after its use in the pre-cooling process.

    “This is a complex liquefaction process where a large supporting nitrogen liquefaction system is required to liquefy gaseous nitrogen after its use in the pre-cooling process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Krasae-in proposed a 100 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded hydrogen Brayton refrigeration cycles and a pre-cooling stage to 80 K using a five-component refrigerant mixture.

    “Krasae-in 238 proposed a 100 TPD liquefier based on four cascaded hydrogen Brayton refrigeration cycles and a pre-cooling stage (to 80 K) using a five component refrigerant mixture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [238]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reported cryogenic expander efficiencies in the literature are between 80 and 90%.

    “Reported cryogenic expander efficiencies in the literature are between (80 and 90)%.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The WE-NET process has a nitrogen pre-cooling stage and a specific energy consumption (SEC) of 8.72 kWh/kg LH2.

    “Other reported conceptual designs include the WE-NET process 190,210 with a nitrogen pre-cooling stage and a SEC of 8.72 kWh kg LH 2”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [190]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [210]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The review screened proposed processes for inclusion in Table 5 using criteria: scale ≥50 TPD, SEC between 4 and 10 kWh/kg LH2, exergy efficiency >23%, and inclusion of novel but attainable technologies.

    “The following criteria were used to screen proposed processes for inclusion in Table 5: Scale Z50 TPD, SEC between 4 and 10 kWh kg LH 2 À1 , Exergy efficiency 423%, and Inclusion of novel but attainable technologies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A larger heat exchange surface area and volume can deliver higher exergy efficiency but imposes higher capital expenses.

    “A larger heat exchange surface area and volume can deliver higher exergy efficiency but imposes higher capital expenses.245,246”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [245]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [246]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Axial turbines have a higher efficiency than radial turbines (at Re > 10^6), but attract a higher capital cost.

    “Axial turbines have a higher efficiency than radial turbines (at Re 4 10 6 ), but attract a higher capital cost.255”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [255]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For pure hydrogen, a large number of turbo-compressor stages are required to reach the desired pressure, as shown by Quack and Valenti and Macchi, and thus would incur higher capital expenditure.

    “For pure hydrogen, a large number of turbo-compressor stages are required to reach the desired pressure as shown by Quack 81 and Valenti and Macchi, 216,239 and thus would incur higher capital expenditure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [81]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [216]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [239]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Krasae-in found that the addition of a pre-cooling stage reduced the compressor power required by the Claude cycle by (5 to 10)%.

    “Krasae-in found that the addition of a pre-cooling stage reduced the compressor power required by the Claude cycle by (5 to 10)%;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Turbine expanders are both complex and attract a higher capital expenditure.

    “however, turbine expanders are both complex and attract a higher capital expenditure.104,258”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [104]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [258]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Skaugen et al. considered the use of spiral-wound heat exchangers for LH2 production with a capacity of 125 TPD.

    “Skaugen et al. 246 considered the use of spiral-wound heat exchangers for LH 2 production with a capacity of 125 TPD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [246]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The reported specific energy consumption for the Leuna plant is 11.9 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen and the exergy efficiency is 23.6%.

    “The reported SEC for the Leuna plant is 11.9 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and the exergy efficiency is 23.6%.131,217”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [131]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [217]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Van Hoecke et al. estimated that 30% of the energy required for the liquefaction of hydrogen is used to produce liquid nitrogen.

    “For example, Van Hoecke et al. 251 estimated that 30% of the energy required for the liquefaction of hydrogen is used to produce liquid nitrogen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [251]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Such plate and fin heat exchangers are typically designed for pressures up to approximately 13 MPa.

    “Such plate and fin heat exchangers are typically designed for pressures up to approximately 13 MPa.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oil-bearing systems require a continuous oil supply, oil pumps, and additional infrastructure for safe shutdown in the case of cycle failure.

    “Oilbearing systems require a continuous oil supply, oil pumps, and additional infrastructure for safe shutdown in the case of cycle failure.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Nitrogen is often a readily available fluid because hydrogen liquefiers are frequently sited close to air separation plants.

    “Nitrogen is often a readily available fluid because hydrogen liquefiers are frequently sited close to air separation plants.182”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [182]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Radial turbines are advantageous in that the work recovered from a single stage is equivalent to that of two or more stages in an axial turbine.

    “Radial turbines are advantageous in that the work recovered from a single stage is equivalent to that of two or more stages in an axial turbine.255”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [255]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Radial flow turbines and axial flow turbines are used for industrial liquefier expansion on the refrigeration side.

    “Radial flow turbines and axial flow turbines are used for industrial liquefier expansion on the refrigeration side.254”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [254]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Conceptual plants designed for large scale may need to address potential challenges with respect to process fluid pressure drop through the catalyst packings.

    “Conceptual plants designed for large scale may need to address potential challenges with respect to process fluid pressure drop through the catalyst packings.183,184,246,247”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [183]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [184]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [246]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Praxair plants implement modified pre-cooled Claude cycles that include three heat exchangers: the first cools the hydrogen feed with both nitrogen gas and a refrigerant from an external cycle, the second uses liquid nitrogen and the hydrogen recycle stream as coolants, while the third exchanger is cooled with the hydrogen recycle stream alone.

    “These plants also implement modified pre-cooled Claude cycles that include three heat exchangers (Fig. 7): the first cools the hydrogen feed with both nitrogen gas and a refrigerant from an external cycle, the second uses liquid nitrogen and the hydrogen recycle stream as coolants, while the third exchanger is cooled with the hydrogen recycle stream alone.189”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [189]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Use of turbine expanders results in higher exergy efficiency because mechanical energy from the rotation of the turbine can be recovered and a larger cooling effect is achieved.

    “The use of turbine expanders results in higher exergy efficiency 247 because mechanical energy from the rotation of the turbine can be recovered and a larger cooling effect is achieved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [247]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Piston compressors are state-of-the-art for industrial liquefiers, but they are expensive and limited in attainable flow rate and efficiency.

    “Whilst piston compressors are state-of-the-art for industrial liquefiers, they are expensive and limited in attainable flow rate and efficiency.126”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Linde reported that the maximum size for LH2 industrial heat exchangers is approximately 8.2 m × 3.4 m × 1.5 m, with a core volume of 15 to 30 m3 and a specific surface of (500 to 2000) m2/m3.

    “Linde reported that the maximum size for LH 2 industrial heat exchangers is approximately 8.2 m  3.4 m  1.5 m, with a core volume of 15 to 30 m 3 and a specific surface of (500 to 2000) m 2 m À3 .242”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Common MR compositions include hydrogen, nitrogen, neon, helium, and hydrocarbons ranging from methane to butane.

    “Common MR compositions include hydrogen, nitrogen, neon, helium, and hydrocarbons ranging from methane to butane.155”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conceptual studies consider feed pressures in the range (0.1 to 2.5) MPa and compressor discharge pressures in the range (2.1 to 8) MPa, with feed temperature typically set to ambient.

    “Conceptual studies consider feed pressures in the range (0.1 to 2.5) MPa and compressor discharge pressures in the range ( 2.1 to 8) MPa, with feed temperature typically set to ambient.192”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plate-fin heat exchangers (PFHE) are used in industrial hydrogen liquefiers because of their high flexibility concerning the number of process channels (and hence capacity), large heat exchange surface area (42000 m2/m3 possible), comparatively small footprint, and comparatively low CAPEX.

    “Plate-fin heat exchangers (PFHE, Fig. 12) are used in industrial hydrogen liquefiers because of their high flexibility concerning the number of process channels (and hence capacity), large heat exchange surface area (42000 m 2 m À3 possible 242 ) coupled with comparatively small footprint, and comparatively low CAPEX.188,216,243”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [188]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [216]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [243]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to Cardella, the specific energy consumption of the IDEALHY process increases to approximately 7.8-8.2 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen if the feed compression from 0.1 to 2 MPa is considered.

    “According to Cardella, the SEC increases to approximately 7.8-8.2kWh kg LH 2 À1 if the feed compression from (0.1 to 2) MPa is considered.126”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cardella notes that the likely viability of the Krasae-in process for industrial applications is low owing to the large number of refrigeration cycles.

    “Cardella notes that, owing to the large number of refrigeration cycles, the likely viability of this process for industrial applications is low.126”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The specific energy consumption of existing industrial hydrogen liquefiers ranges from 10 to 15 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen, or 35 to 45% of the lower heating value of hydrogen, with exergy efficiencies ranging from 20-30%.

    “The SEC of existing industrial hydrogen liquefiers ranges from ( 10 to 15 ) kWh kg LH 2 À1 or (35 to 45) % of the lower heating value of hydrogen, [124][125][126] with exergy efficiencies ranging from 20-30%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [124]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [125]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    SINTEF reported a modified version of the Quack process where pre-cooling of the hydrogen stream is achieved by a mixed refrigerant comprising C1-C5, ethylene, nitrogen, neon, and R14.

    “SINTEF reported a modified version of the process model 189,240 proposed by Quack where pre-cooling of the hydrogen stream is achieved by an MR comprising C1-C5, ethylene, nitrogen, neon, and R14.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [189]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [240]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Exposing hydrogen to external magnetic fields can cause a temperature change and potentially liquefy it.

    “Alternatively, exposing hydrogen to external magnetic fields can cause a temperature change and potentially liquefy it.[259][260][261]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [259]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [260]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [261]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vacuum-insulated coldboxes are typically pre-fabricated off-site and transported to the liquefier construction site, so transportation weight and size limits can determine the possible coldbox size.

    “Large insulated coldboxes can be erected in the field, however, vacuum-insulated coldboxes are typically pre-fabricated off-site and transported to the liquefier construction site; transportation weight and size limits can thus determine the possible coldbox size.126”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Challenges have been identified in determining the true efficiency of the Quack process owing to the high energy requirements of propane refrigeration.

    “Challenges have been identified in determining the true efficiency of the process, owing to the high energy requirements of propane refrigeration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mixtures may have better heat transfer properties and compression features than pure refrigerants.

    “Mixtures may also have better heat transfer properties and compression features than pure refrigerants.200”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [200]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    According to Cardella et al., a specific energy consumption below 6 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen could be achieved while reducing the specific liquefaction costs by 67% compared to smaller scale 5 TPD LH2 plants; this process could be implemented in the next few years making it one of the most promising conceptual design currently available.

    “According to Cardella et al., 210 a specific energy consumption below 6 kWh kg LH 2 À1 could be achieved while reducing the specific liquefaction costs by 67% compared to smaller scale 5 TPD LH 2 plants; this process could be implemented in the next few years making it one of the most promising conceptual design currently available.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [210]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Kuendig et al. model is a conceptual design of a 50 TPD liquefier based on a Claude cycle with pre-cooling by LNG and nitrogen gas.

    “The model shown in Fig. 9 235 is a conceptual design of a 50 TPD liquefier based on a Claude cycle with precooling by LNG and nitrogen gas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [235]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The specific energy consumption and exergy efficiency of the IDEALHY process are 6.7 kWh per kg of liquid hydrogen and 32%, respectively.

    “The SEC and exergy efficiency of this process are 6.7 kWh kg LH 2 À1 and 32%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [221]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Praxair has five hydrogen liquefaction plants, all located in the USA, with capacities between 18 and 32 TPD.

    “Praxair has five hydrogen liquefaction plants, all located in the USA, with capacities between 18 and 32 TPD.218”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [218]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Valenti and Macchi process is complex and requires a large number of compressor stages, hence higher CAPEX, due to the low molar mass of helium.

    “However, this is a complex process requiring a large number of compressor stages (hence higher CAPEX) due to the low molar mass of helium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Aluminium is the most common material used for these cryogenic heat exchangers, due to its comparatively high thermal conductivity and strength at low temperatures.

    “Aluminium is the most common material used for these cryogenic heat exchangers, due to its comparatively high thermal conductivity and strength at low temperatures.192,243,244”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [192]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [243]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [244]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These differences provide a basis for optimism regarding the current prospects for hydrogen's ascendance to a prominent and central component of global energy supply chains.

    “These differences provide a basis for optimism regarding the current prospects for hydrogen's ascendance to a prominent and central component of global energy supply chains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and carbon capture and storage technologies are more mature.
    • Rests on an assumption: The cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has dropped dramatically with the development of fuel cell technologies.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Slush hydrogen is produced via three key methods: the spray method, the freeze-thaw method, and the Augur method.

    “Slush hydrogen is produced via three key methods: (1) the spray method where liquid hydrogen is expanded, thus solidifying it, and mixed with liquid hydrogen; (2) the freeze-thaw method with a Dewar and vacuum pump; and (3) the Augur method (which uses helium refrigeration).317,318”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [317]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [318]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Long-standing LNG and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) storage and transport standards may have the potential to cover relevant areas for the export of liquid hydrogen; however, this will require considerable review.

    “Long-standing LNG and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) storage and transport standards may have the potential to cover relevant areas for the export of liquid hydrogen; however, this will require considerable review.332,333”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [332]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [333]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: While the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in understanding stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) released a safety code which provides fundamental safeguards for the generation, installation, storage, piping, use, and handling of hydrogen in compressed gas (GH2) form or cryogenic liquid (LH2) form.

    “The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) released a safety code which provides fundamental safeguards for the generation, installation, storage, piping, use, and handling of hydrogen in compressed gas (GH 2 ) form or cryogenic liquid (LH 2 ) form.334”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [334]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Liquefaction costs are dependent mainly on the liquefier efficiency, which is in turn highly dependent on the energy consumption of the selected liquefaction process and electricity price.

    “These are dependent mainly on the liquefier efficiency 189 which is in turn highly dependent on the energy consumption of the selected liquefaction process and electricity price.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [189]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The development and application of effective and efficient engineering standards are the central tool to address the challenge of hydrogen safety.

    “The development and application of effective and efficient engineering standards are the central tool to address the challenge of hydrogen safety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen can cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.
    • Rests on an assumption: Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases such as air and nitrogen to condense and solidify, which can cause blockages and failures in equipment.
    • Rests on an assumption: Until hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Liquid hydrogen BOG losses can be on the order of 0.4% per day for a 50 m3 cryogenic tank, and 0.06% per day for a 20 000 m3 tank.

    “Liquid hydrogen BOG losses can be on the order of 0.4% per day for a 50 m 3 cryogenic tank, and 0.06% per day for a 20 000 m 3 tank.271”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [271]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    It is unclear whether increasing the scale of LH2 production trains beyond 100 TPD would lead to further reductions in unit liquefaction costs.

    “At this stage, it is unclear whether increasing the scale of LH 2 production trains beyond 100 TPD would lead to further reductions in unit liquefaction costs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [350]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [351]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [352]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    During liquid hydrogen storage, Petitpas found that some temperature gradients may exist across the vessel (thermal stratification).

    “During LH 2 storage, Petitpas found that some temperature gradients may exist across the vessel (thermal stratification).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [276]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Today's wave of enthusiasm for hydrogen is motivated not only by energy security but also by the need to decarbonise the world's energy system.

    “It is not only motivated by energy security but also the need to decarbonise the world's energy system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hydrogen has a high propensity to ignite due to its wide flammability range (4 to 74 vol% in air) and very low ignition energy (0.017 mJ).

    “Furthermore, hydrogen has a high propensity to ignite due to its wide flammability range (4 to 74 vol% in air) and very low ignition energy (0.017 mJ).251”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [251]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The support structure of the liquid hydrogen vessel uses glass-fibre-reinforced plastic to minimise heat transfer.

    “The support structure uses glass-fibre-reinforced plastic to minimise heat transfer.267”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [267]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Rail and aircraft methods of liquid hydrogen transportation are limited by high energy use, boil-off losses and/or total capacity.

    “However these methods of LH 2 transportation are limited by high energy use, boil-off losses and/or total capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sloshing is the movement of the liquid in the vessel due to the motion of the carrier, and it can lead to significant boil-off.

    “This phenomenon is the movement of the liquid in the vessel due to the motion of the carrier, and it can lead to significant boil-off.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [304]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Wijayanta et al. projected a smaller liquefaction cost by 2030 of approximately 7.3 JPY/Nm3 (0.76 US$/kg H2).

    “Wijayanta et al. 98 projected a smaller liquefaction cost by 2030 of approximately 7.3 JPf per Nm 3 (0.76 US$ per kg H 2 ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [98]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many studies have suggested that top fill (top spray) is probably the most effective way to reduce transfer losses, although more understanding of the underlying physics is needed.

    “Many studies [290][291][292][293][294][295][296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303] have investigated possible ways to reduce boil-off losses and suggested that top fill (top spray) is probably the most effective way to reduce transfer losses, although more understanding of the underlying physics is needed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [290]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [291]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [292]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A number of international technical committees now are responsible for drafting standards in specific fields.

    “A number of international technical committees now are responsible for drafting standards in specific fields.328”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [328]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Ammonia is an alternative carrier to liquid hydrogen for storage and transport applications, which already has international supply chains established.

    “Ammonia is an alternative carrier to liquid hydrogen for storage and transport applications, which in contrast already has international supply chains established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cardella et al. found that SLC decreased by almost 60% with a 50 TPD plant or by 67% with a 100 TPD plant, compared with a 5 TPD plant.

    “This observation is consistent with the work published by Cardella et al. who found that SLC decreased by almost 60% with a 50 TPD plant or by 67% with a 100 TPD plant, compared with a 5 TPD plant.93,264”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [93]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [264]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Projections of annual global hydrogen demand in 2050 have reached as high as 621 million tonnes.

    “Projections of annual global hydrogen demand in 2050 have reached as high as 621 million tonnes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [129]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    NASA has more recently announced the construction of a 4732 m3, 327 tonne liquid hydrogen tank.

    “NASA has more recently announced the construction of a 4732 m 3 , 327 tonne liquid hydrogen tank.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conceptual approaches to boil-off gas management have investigated its use as a fuel, re-liquefying it, or burning it.

    “Conceptual approaches to BOG management have also investigated its use as a fuel, re-liquefying it or burning it.312”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [312]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The liquid hydrogen vessel launched by Kawasaki Heavy Industries in December 2019 is cylindrical and designed with a vacuum-insulated double-walled structure.

    “The liquid hydrogen vessel is cylindrical and designed with a vacuum-insulated double-walled structure.267”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [267]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    NASA operates the largest current storage vessel (3800 m3) for liquid hydrogen at Kennedy Space Centre, FL, USA with a storage capacity of 263 tonnes (if stored at 22 K and 0.15 MPa).

    “NASA operates the largest current storage vessel (3800 m 3 ) for liquid hydrogen at Kennedy Space Centre, FL, USA with a storage capacity of 263 tonnes (if stored at 22 K and 0.15 MPa).265”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [265]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A perlite void resulted in the venting of over 12 000 gallons per day of hydrogen.

    “For example, a perlite void resulted in the venting of over 12 000 gallons per day of hydrogen.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The IRAS system features zero boil-off and densified slush hydrogen production.

    “Features of this system include zero boil-off and densified slush hydrogen production (mixture of liquid and solid hydrogen), which is detailed in Section 4.3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [294]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Baffles may be installed in the tank to mitigate the effect of sloshing.

    “Baffles may be installed in the tank to mitigate the effect.305”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [305]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spherical tanks are used for storing larger volumes because they provide a minimum surface-to-volume ratio, and a more uniform distribution of stresses and strains.

    “Spherical tanks are used for storing larger volumes 132 because they provide a minimum surface-to-volume ratio, and a more uniform distribution of stresses and strains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vacuum leaks in cryogenic hydrogen storage tanks resulted in solidification of air in the storage tank annulus, which subsequently liquefied and cooled the vacuum jacket.

    “These leaks resulted in the solidification of air in the storage tank annulus, which subsequently liquefied (as LH 2 was removed from the tank) and cooled the vacuum jacket.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    International hydrogen standards already exist and continue to be developed by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

    “International hydrogen standards already exist and continue to be developed 327”
    • Also stated in: § both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). · plain
      “both by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [327]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Safe road transport of liquid hydrogen can be achieved with existing technology; however, this is not at a scale comparable to the existing petroleum fuel distribution network.

    “Safe road transport of liquid hydrogen can be achieved with existing technology; however, this is not at a scale comparable to the existing petroleum fuel distribution network.309”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [309]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A number of NASA launches have been halted due to hydrogen leaks, mostly in umbilicals.

    “A number of NASA launches have been halted due to hydrogen leaks, mostly in umbilicals.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kawasaki Heavy Industries has stated a liquefaction price of approximately 9.8 JPY/Nm3 (1.1 US$/kg H2).

    “In comparison, Kawasaki Heavy Industries has stated a liquefaction price of approximately 9.8 JPf per Nm 3 (1.1 US$ per kg H 2 ).102”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The phenomenon of rapid phase transition explosion has been observed for spills of LNG on water, but is not well understood for liquid hydrogen.

    “This phenomenon has been observed for spills of LNG on water, but is not well understood for liquid hydrogen.323”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [323]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Traditionally, slush hydrogen has only been investigated for use in space missions.

    “Traditionally, slush hydrogen has only been investigated for use in space missions.[313][314][315][316]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [313]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [314]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [315]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [316]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A boil-off rate of less than 0.4% per day was reported for the liquid hydrogen vessel, with boil-off gas being re-stored without venting to atmosphere.

    “A boil-off rate of less than 0.4% per day was reported, with BOG being re-stored without venting to atmosphere.267”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [267]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Standards that govern the handling of liquid hydrogen at the point of use include ISO 13984 (Liquid hydrogen - land vehicle fuelling system interface) and ISO 13985 (Liquid hydrogen - land vehicle fuel tanks).

    “Standards that govern the handling of liquid hydrogen at the point of use include ISO 13984 (Liquid hydrogen -land vehicle fuelling system interface) and ISO 13985 (Liquid hydrogen -land vehicle fuel tanks).329”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [329]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Challenges specific to the LH2 supply chain may be placed in one or more of four categories: economics, cryogenic losses, scale, and safety.

    “Challenges specific to the LH 2 supply chain may similarly be placed in one or more of the four categories identified in the introduction: economics, cryogenic losses, scale and safety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For demand to reach projected levels, the levelised cost of hydrogen associated with the entire value chain will need to decrease.

    “For demand to reach these levels, the levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH) associated with the entire value chain will need to decrease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    If hydrogen is to meet this expectation, a number of significant challenges will need to be overcome.

    “However, if hydrogen is to meet this expectation, a number of significant challenges will need to be overcome.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In 2015 the US Department of Energy reported the price for a 3500 m3 liquid hydrogen tank was US$6.6 million (with a long-term target price of US$3.3 million).

    “In 2015 the US Department of Energy reported the price for a 3500 m 3 liquid hydrogen tank was US$6.6 million (with a long-term target price of US$3.3 million).266”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [266]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hydrogen has been shown to spontaneously ignite on sudden release from pressurised containers, although the mechanism is not fully understood.

    “It has been shown to spontaneously ignite on sudden release from pressurised containers, although the mechanism is not fully understood.323”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [323]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The HESC project will inform future amendments to the IGC Code, including the potential to allow liquid hydrogen to be carried in bulk under the code without the requirement for special agreements.

    “The project will inform future amendments to the IGC Code (International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk), including the potential to allow liquid hydrogen to be carried in bulk under the code without the requirement for special agreements.311”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [311]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Within the broader context of the hydrogen value chain, challenges can generally be classified as relating to cost, scale, and the maintenance of social license.

    “Within the broader context of the hydrogen value chain (Fig. 1) these challenges can generally be classified as relating to cost”
    • Also stated in: § 5 LH 2 supply chains: prospects and challenges · plain
      “scale (e.g. the capacity to construct or convert national-scale infrastructure for hydrogen distribution), and the maintenance of social license (e.g.managing use conflicts over scarce waterresources).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Ensuring the safe operation of hydrogen value chains is a challenge that relates to both cost and the maintenance of social licence.

    “Ensuring the safe operation of hydrogen value chains is a challenge that relates to both cost and the maintenance of social licence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain Project (HESC) intends to transport liquid hydrogen from the Port of Hastings in Victoria, Australia, to Kobe, Japan, and will be the first commercial project to pilot liquid hydrogen maritime transport.

    “The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain Project (HESC), which intends to transport liquid hydrogen from the Port of Hastings in Victoria, Australia, to Kobe, Japan, will be the first commercial project to pilot liquid hydrogen maritime transport.311”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [311]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    General awareness of the Hindenburg disaster after more than 80 years is a stark example of how easily energy technologies can be substantially tarnished in the mind of the public, even if the accident's root cause had little to do with hydrogen per se.

    “General awareness of the Hindenburg disaster after more than 80 years is a stark example of how easily energy technologies can be substantially tarnished in the mind of the public, even if the accident's root cause had little to do with hydrogen per se.322”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [322]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Relevant standards for hydrogen liquefaction and storage include ISO/TC:22 (road vehicles), ISO/TC 197 (hydrogen technologies), and IEC/TC 105 (fuel cell technology).

    “Relevant standards for hydrogen liquefaction and storage include ISO/TC:22 329 (road vehicles), ISO/TC 197 330 (hydrogen technologies), and IEC/TC 105 331”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [329]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [330]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [331]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    BOG generation occurs at liquid hydrogen plants and exporting terminals for several additional reasons: depressurisation (flashing), heat ingress into transfer pipes, heat added by equipment such as pumps, and cooling down of liquid hydrogen carrying vessels.

    “BOG generation occurs at LH 2 plants and exporting terminal for several additional reasons.These include BOG generation due to depressurisation (flashing), heat ingress into transfer pipes, heat added by equipment such as pumps, and cooling down of LH 2 carrying vessels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These tests will help inform the development and strengthening of engineering standards that further increase the safety of planned LH2 supply chains.

    “These tests will help inform the development and strengthening of engineering standards that further increase the safety of planned LH 2 supply chains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Densification allows for longer storage before boil-off, and increases cooling capacity when used as refrigerant.

    “Densification also allows for longer storage before boil-off, and increases cooling capacity when used as refrigerant.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Heat ingress causes the vapor temperature to increase faster than that of the liquid due to the vapor's higher thermal diffusivity, resulting in heat conduction across the vapor-liquid interface and thus a temperature gradient in the top layer of the liquid phase known as thermal stratification.

    “Additionally, heat ingress causes the vapor temperature to increase faster than that of the liquid due to the vapor's higher thermal diffusivity, resulting in heat conduction across the vapor-liquid interface and thus a temperature gradient in the top layer of the liquid phase known as thermal stratification.[277][278][279][280][281][282][283][284][285]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [277]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [278]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [279]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    PRESLHY is currently conducting experimental work in hydrogen release and mixing, ignition, and combustion with a view to providing enhanced recommendations for safe design and operations of liquid hydrogen technologies.

    “PRESLHY 324 is currently conducting experimental work in hydrogen release and mixing, ignition, and combustion with a view to providing enhanced recommendations for safe design and operations of liquid hydrogen technologies.[324][325][326]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [324]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [325]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [326]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Connelly et al. estimated a liquefaction cost of 2.75 US$/kg LH2 for a 27 TPD plant in California (USA), which is based on current commercially available technology used in existing industrial liquefiers.

    “For reference, Connelly et al. 109 estimated a liquefaction cost of 2.75 US$ per kg LH 2 for a 27 TPD plant in California (USA), which is based on current commercially available technology used in existing industrial liquefiers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [109]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    To date, transportation of liquid hydrogen occurs predominantly by truck, with capacities up to approximately 60 m3 (about 4150 kg).

    “To date, transportation of liquid hydrogen occurs predominantly by truck, with capacities up to approximately 60 m 3 (E4150 kg).271”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [271]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kawasaki Heavy Industries completed the construction of its LH2 receiving terminal in the Port of Kobe in July 2020.

    “Kawasaki Heavy Industries completed the construction of its LH 2 receiving terminal in the Port of Kobe in July 2020.267”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [267]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The vacuum leak phenomenon decreased the tank wall temperature below its ductility limits, thereby cracking the vacuum jacket; it could have been prevented by draining the tank more slowly whilst heating the outer vessel with water.

    “This phenomenon decreased the tank wall temperature below its ductility limits, thereby cracking the vacuum jacket; 86 it could have been prevented by draining the tank more slowly whilst heating the outer vessel with water.86”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Densification and slush hydrogen can offer potential reductions in size and mass of storage systems and transport vessels, and/or enable the transport of larger quantities in a given volume.

    “This can offer potential reductions in size and mass of storage systems and transport vessels, and/or enable the transport of larger quantities in a given volume.297”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [297]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The categories of challenges for the LH2 supply chain are inter-related; for example, safety requirements and the magnitude of cryogenic losses associated with liquid hydrogen storage inherently impact its economics.

    “These categories are clearly inter-related with, for example, safety requirements and the magnitude of cryogenic losses associated with liquid hydrogen storage inherently impacting its economics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Decomposition back to H2 adds approximately 0.67 US$ per kg H2 giving a total cost of (1.5-2.9) US$ for each kg of hydrogen transported as NH3.

    “Decomposition back to H 2 adds approximately 0.67 US$ per kg H 2 60 giving a total cost of ( 1.5-2.9)US$ for each kg of hydrogen transported as NH 3 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [60]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [37]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [98]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Ortho-para conversion will be more efficient using catalysts with better characterised kinetics integrated into heat exchanger designs that reduce the associated pressure drop.

    “Ortho-para conversion will be more efficient using catalysts with better characterised kinetics integrated into heat exchanger designs that reduce the associated pressure drop.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Location and plant capacity are two factors influencing ammonia production cost, which range from 0.21-0.40 US$ per kg NH3 in Western Europe to as little as 0.14 US$ per kg NH3 on the US Gulf Coast.

    “Location and plant capacity are two factors influencing ammonia production cost, which range from 0.21-0.40US$ per kg NH 3 in Western Europe to as little as 0.14 US$ per kg NH 3 on the US Gulf Coast.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [114]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Improved quantitative descriptions of the fluids, catalysts and other key materials used in liquefaction are needed over a wide range of conditions to progress many R&D priorities.

    “To progress many of the research and development priorities listed under Liquefaction or Storage & Transport, improved quantitative descriptions of the fluids, catalysts and other key materials used in liquefaction are needed over a wide range of conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Hydrogen liquefaction plants that achieve these targets will likely use mixed-refrigerants in both the pre-cooling and cryogenic stages of a Brayton cycle, integrated and modular cold box configurations, high-efficiency turbo compressors on the refrigerant-side, and oil-free expanders for the H2 side.

    “Hydrogen liquefaction plants that achieve these targets will likely use mixed-refrigerants in both the pre-cooling and cryogenic stages of a Brayton cycle, integrated and modular cold box configurations, high-efficiency turbo compressors on the refrigerant-side, and oil-free expanders for the H 2 side.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Multiple challenges exist to the growth of liquid hydrogen, which can be placed within the broad categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale.

    “However, multiple challenges exist to the growth of liquid hydrogen, which can be placed within the broad categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    LH2 offers several advantages including being an immediately pure product at the point of use.

    “Whilst it is one several technologies available, including ammonia and liquid organic carriers, LH 2 offers several advantages including being an immediately pure product at the point of use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Improved models for quantitative predictions of thermal stratification, interfacial heat transfer, tank geometry, pressure and the resulting LH2 boil off rate in large storage tanks will be essential.

    “Improved models for quantitative predictions of thermal stratification, interfacial heat transfer, tank geometry, pressure and the resulting LH 2 boil off rate in large storage tanks will be essential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    If large-scale liquid hydrogen supply chains are to become a reality, addressing the challenge of safety will be vital through a combination of standards development and improved technologies for automatically detecting and eliminating hydrogen leaks and fires.

    “Finally, if large-scale liquid hydrogen supply chains are to become a reality, addressing the challenge of safety will be vital through a combination of standards development and improved technologies for automatically detecting and eliminating hydrogen leaks and fires.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Thermophysical property data for hydrogen and its mixtures are needed at temperatures from 20 K to 300 K and pressures from ambient to 8 MPa.

    “Thermophysical property data for hydrogen and its mixtures are needed at temperatures from 20 K to 300 K and pressures from ambient to 8 MPa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    These targets should be achievable if liquefaction train capacities can be increased to around 100 TPD or larger.

    “These targets should be achievable if liquefaction train capacities can be increased to around 100 TPD or larger.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While the underlying science and basic engineering requirements for hydrogen liquefaction are known, significant limitations exist regarding the quantification of key properties needed for improved technical solutions.

    “While the underlying science and basic engineering requirements for hydrogen liquefaction are known, significant limitations exist regarding the quantification of key properties needed for improved technical solutions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Avoiding hydrogen leaks is one of the most difficult but important challenges that must be overcome to ensure sustained safe operations.

    “Avoiding hydrogen leaks is one of the most difficult but important challenges that must be overcome to ensure sustained safe operations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Practical solutions to multiple challenges in the four categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale will be required if large-scale LH2 supply chains are to be established.

    “However, practical solutions to multiple challenges in the four categories of economics, cryogenic losses, safety and scale presented in this paper will be required if large-scale LH 2 supply chains are to be established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Two key targets for future liquid hydrogen supply chains are (i) reducing the specific liquefaction cost to around (1-2) US$ per kg H2 and (ii) lowering the specific energy consumption of the liquefaction process to between (6 and 8) kWh kg H2−1.

    “Two key targets for future liquid hydrogen supply chains are (i) reducing the specific liquefaction cost to around (1-2) US$ per kg H 2 and (ii) lowering the specific energy consumption of the liquefaction process to between (6 and 8) kWh kg H 2 À1 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wijayanta et al. predicted an imported cost of ammonia from Australia to Japan by 2030 of around 0.44 US$ per kg NH3 (2.5 US$ per kg H2) if ammonia can be used directly, and a total cost of 0.563 US$ per kg NH3 (3.2 US$ per kg H2) when ammonia is decomposed back to hydrogen.

    “Wijayanta et al. 98 predicted an imported cost, including hydrogen production from SMR, of ammonia from Australia to Japan by 2030 of around 0.44 US$ per kg NH 3 (2.5 US$ per kg H 2 ) if ammonia can be used directly, and a total cost of 0.563 US$ per kg NH 3 (3.2US$ per kg H 2 ), when ammonia is decomposed back to hydrogen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [98]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ishimoto et al. found that the LH2 supply chain costs ranged from (4.8 to 6.8 US$ per kg H2), which were generally below those of NH3 (6.1 to 6.6 US$ per kg H2), except for the longest distance supply chain.

    “Using conservative costs for currently available technologies, Ishimoto et al. 360 found that the LH 2 supply chain costs ranged from (4.8 to 6.8 US$ per kg H 2 ), which were generally below those of NH 3 (6.1 to 6.6 US$ per kg H 2 ), except for the longest distance supply chain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [360]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Accurate assessment of pressurisation dynamics, thermal stratification and boil-off rates are critical for the design and operation of transfer lines and storage tanks that minimise both LH2 losses and hazards to safety.

    “Accurate assessment of pressurisation dynamics, thermal stratification and boil-off rates are critical for the design and operation of transfer lines and storage tanks that minimise both LH 2 losses and hazards to safety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
181 of 181

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.

    “There is increasing consensus that hydrogen will be essential for a global transition to a sustainable energy economy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Storing and transporting hydrogen energy over long time scales and distances requires a physical or chemical conversion process to achieve a viable energy density.

    “While the production stage usually generates gaseous H 2 , storing and transporting the associated energy over long time scales and distances requires the implementation of a physical or chemical conversion process within the 3rd stage of the value chain to achieve a viable energy density.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The very-high purity requirements of H2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.

    “The very-high purity requirements of H 2 fuel cell vehicles are similar to those needed and achieved during the hydrogen liquefaction process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.

    “Scale: currently, the largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 tonnes per day (TPD), and the total global capacity is 350 tonnes per day.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.

    “Safety: liquid hydrogen is not a common global shipping commodity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.

    “Current designs for approved future hydrogen liquefiers do not exceed the single liquefaction train capacity of approximately 30 TPD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.

    “Turbo-compressors generally have higher efficiency and greater throughput than piston compressors and are more suitable for large scale liquefaction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.

    “Process passages in the heat exchangers are often packed with particulate ortho-para conversion catalysts.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The overall heat exchanger size is limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.

    “The overall heat exchanger size is, however, limited primarily by the size of the accommodating coldbox and, to a lesser extent, the design pressure.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.

    “Recently-built industrial hydrogen liquefiers and most conceptual processes in the literature employ continuous catalytic ortho-para conversion.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as relevant working fluids.

    “While nitrogen is the only pre-cooling fluid used in known commercial hydrogen liquefaction plants, conceptual cycles use nitrogen, propane, MRs, and LNG as the relevant working fluid.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.

    “Existing liquefiers only use nitrogen in the precooling stage while a hydrogen recycle stream is used in the cryogenic stage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.

    “Cooling can be achieved via Joule-Thompson expansion through a throttle valve or by turbine expansion which enables further cooling with increased CAPEX.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To date, industrial liquefiers have been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.

    “To date, industrial liquefiers has been limited to pre-cooled Claude cycles.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.

    “Energy use accounts for around 30% of the total liquefaction cost of current liquefiers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquefaction capacity plays a major role in the cost breakdown.

    “Liquefaction capacity also plays a major role in the cost breakdown.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To date, such efficiency (6.4 kWh/kg) has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.

    “To date, such efficiency has not yet been achieved in commercial liquefiers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Turbo compressors are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.

    “which are generally well suited and scalable to very high capacities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.

    “Rising demand for liquid hydrogen in new markets located a long-distance from the production site presents a new set of challenges in terms of transport and storage of this cryogenic fluid.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.

    “These challenges stem largely from the boil-off losses caused by various heat sources leaking into the liquid, particularly over long periods of time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the NASA Space Shuttle program, over 24,500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.

    “where over 24 500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen were purchased, of which 45.4% was lost during storage, loading, or replenishing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.

    “Liquid hydrogen is most commonly stored in horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.

    “Structural supports can be based on tension (rods or cables) or compression (load bearing pads) depending on the particular tank design.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ullage space is typically ~10% of the internal volume of the tank.

    “Ullage space is typically r10% of the internal volume of the tank.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the super-heated vapour model (BoilFAST), the vapor and liquid phase temperatures are independent but spatially uniform.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the BoilFAST model, the liquid phase is saturated.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the BoilFAST model, the vapor can become superheated.

    “This super-heated vapour model, implemented in the freely-available software package BoilFAST which includes options for LH 2 and NH 3 storage, 289 considers the vapor and liquid phase temperatures to be independent but assumes they are spatially uniform; the liquid phase is assumed to be saturated, while the vapor can become superheated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.

    “Hydrogen has long been identified as a likely central component of future energy systems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and carbon capture and storage technologies are more mature.

    “Additionally, the cost of producing renewable energy has decreased substantially, and CCS technologies are also more mature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has dropped dramatically with the development of fuel cell technologies.

    “Finally, the cost of using hydrogen to generate electricity has also dropped dramatically with the development, for example, of fuel cell technologies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.

    “Hydrogen gas has a strong propensity to leak due to its small molecular size and high diffusivity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hydrogen can cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.

    “Hydrogen can also cause embrittlement of many materials, resulting in cracking and catastrophic failure of metals significantly below the yield stress.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases such as air and nitrogen to condense and solidify, which can cause blockages and failures in equipment.

    “Liquid hydrogen can cause other gases (such as air and nitrogen) to condense and solidify -this can cause blockages and failures in equipment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Until hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.

    “Until the hydrogen vaporises as it warms, it will accumulate as a substance denser than air.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.

    “Most hydrogen-specific transport and storage standards are, however, still in development and targeted primarily at the utilisation stage of the value chain.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    While the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in understanding stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.

    “Whilst the behaviour of LNG and LPG during transport is well understood, liquid hydrogen presents a unique set of challenges, particularly in the understanding of stratification, sloshing, boil-off gas, and pressure build-up.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.

    “the world's current largest single liquefier has a capacity of 32 TPD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The literature studies in Table 9 are sufficiently comparable to average their cost components.

    “based on the averages across the studies considered in Table 9”
38 of 38

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Some authors have suggested that the introduction of an LN2 pre-cooling unit upstream of the liquefaction zone could lead to an increase in EXE of about 50-70% since the mechanical energy of the turbine rotation can be recovered and better cooling is achieved.

    “However, some authors have suggested that the introduction of an LN2 pre-cooling unit upstream of the liquefaction zone could lead to an increase in EXE of about 50-70% [94] since the mechanical energy of the turbine rotation can be recovered and better cooling is achieved [83].”

    From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [83]

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • According to Aasadnia et al., the specific energy consumption (SEC) of liquefaction plants is usually around 10-15 kWh/kg LH2 while EXE values are between 19% and 24%.

    “According to Aasadnia et al. [86], the specific energy consumption (SEC) of liquefaction plants is usually around 10-15 kWh/kg LH2 while EXE values are between 19 % and 24 % [6,86-89].”

    From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]

    Section 3.2 (page not provided) reports SEC of 10–15 kWh/kg LH₂ for existing industrial liquefiers, matching that part of the claim. It gives exergy efficiencies of 20–30%, not the claimed 19–24%. (LLM, conf=0.92)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems have production rates greater than 100 tonne/day, efficiency greater than 40%, SEC less than 6 kWh/kgLH2, and investment costs of 1-2 $/kgLH2.

    “The cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems are those with higher production rates (>100 tonne/day), higher efficiency (>40%), lower SEC (<6 kWh/kgLH2), and lower investment costs (1–2 $/kgLH2).”

    From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [59]

    Sections 3.6 and 5.2 link plants of around 100 tonnes/day or more with lower liquefaction costs, and section 3.3 describes a conceptual 100-tonne/day process with 43% exergy efficiency and the potential for SEC below 6 kWh/kg. But these are projections or targets, not established criteria for cost-efficient systems. The cited figures concern liquefaction cost per kilogram, not investment cost, and do not establish the claimed $1–2/kg investment-cost range. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In industrial H2 liquefaction processes, both types of expanders are used on the refrigeration side.

    “In industrial H2 liquefaction processes, both types of expanders are used on the refrigeration side [89].”

    From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]

  • The maximum LH2 production of existing plants worldwide is about 32 ton/day per liquefaction train.

    “The maximum LH2 production of existing plants worldwide is about 32 ton/day per liquefaction train [89].”

    From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [89]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The lower end of the SEC range is not 35% of hydrogen's heating value

    Minor

    The paper gives hydrogen's lower heating value as 33.3 kWh per kg. An SEC of 10 kWh per kg is about 30% of that value, not 35%.

    Reported 35 · recomputed 30.03003

  • Two SEC values are given for the WE-NET process

    Minor

    The text reports 8.72 kWh per kg for WE-NET, while Table 5 reports 8.53 kWh per kg for the same named process.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

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Cited by

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Related

Authors
Al Ghafri, S. Z., Munro, S., Cardella, U., Funke, T., Notardonato, W., Trusler, J. P. M., Leachman, J., Span, R., Kamiya, S., Pearce, G., Swanger, A., Rodriguez, E. D., Bajada, P., Jiao, F., Peng, K., Siahvashi, A., Johns, M. L., & May, E. F.
Affiliations
  • Fluid Science and Resources Division, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
  • The University of Western Australia (AU)
  • Kempten University of Applied Sciences (DE)
  • FormFactor (Germany) (DE)
  • MitaVista, the Space Life Science Lab Suite 201C, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, FL 32953, USA
  • Imperial College London (GB)
  • Washington State University (US)
  • Ruhr University Bochum (DE)
  • Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd, 1-1, Kawasaki-cho, Akashi-City, 673-8666, Japan
  • UNSW Sydney (AU)
  • Kennedy Space Center (US)
Corresponding author
May, Eric F.
ORCID
Venue
Energy & Environmental Science
Publisher
Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
Published
2022
Volume
15
Issue
7
Pages
2690-2731
ISSN
  • 1754-5692 (ISSN-L)
  • 1754-5706
DOI
10.1039/d2ee00099g
OpenAlex
W4225906509
Cited by
561
References
248
Citations by year
2026: 149 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 147 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 11
FWCI
45.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Energy & Environmental Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
  • Australian Research Council (FT180100572, IC150100019)
  • Cooperative Research Centres, Australian Government Department of Industry (CRCXXI000008)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Hydrogen Storage and Materials
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
Keywords
hydrogen liquefaction, hydrogen energy carriers, decarbonization, cryogenic hydrogen storage, liquefied natural gas

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-30.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-30.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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