Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems have production rates greater than 100 tonne/day, efficiency greater than 40%, SEC less than 6 kWh/kgLH2, and investment costs of 1-2 $/kgLH2.

“The cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems are those with higher production rates (>100 tonne/day), higher efficiency (>40%), lower SEC (<6 kWh/kgLH2), and lower investment costs (1–2 $/kgLH2).”

• cites [59] sourcePartly supported

  Sections 3.6 and 5.2 link plants of around 100 tonnes/day or more with lower liquefaction costs, and section 3.3 describes a conceptual 100-tonne/day process with 43% exergy efficiency and the potential for SEC below 6 kWh/kg. But these are projections or targets, not established criteria for cost-efficient systems. The cited figures concern liquefaction cost per kilogram, not investment cost, and do not establish the claimed $1–2/kg investment-cost range. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The densities of liquid H2 and high-pressure gas are 70.8 and under 40 kg/m3, respectively.

“The densities of liquid H2 and high-pressure gas, are, respectively 70.8 and under 40 kg/m3.41”

• cites [41] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The ortho- to para-H2 conversion appears with a transition from the ortho triplet state to a para singlet state, which in the normal state is very slow.

“The ortho- to para-H2 conversion appears with a transition from the ortho triplet state to a para singlet state, which in the normal state of this transition is very slow, and more time is spent in this process.101,152,153”

• cites [101] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [152] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [153] Baker C., 1979Could not verify

  The passages in section 4.2 and the appendices discuss hydrogen-liquefaction costs, not the mechanism or speed of ortho-to-para conversion. Searches for the triplet-to-singlet transition, conversion rate, and catalysts found no passage addressing the claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

H2 energy storage is the main option for longer periods with higher storage capacity.

“Hydrogen (H2) energy storage is the main option for longer periods with higher storage capacity.12,13”

• cites [12] sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 (page unavailable) describes hydrogen as one of the promising technologies for long-term, large-scale energy storage, supporting the duration and capacity aspects. It does not call hydrogen the main option; the same section identifies pumped hydro as the leading storage technology. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [13] Valenti G., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The quote only partly states this claim.

Noh et al. found that the SEC in the first and second LNG cold recovery structures decreased by 5.14% and 8.13%, respectively, compared to the basic cycle.

“Similar results demonstrated that the SEC in the first and second structures has decreased by 5.14% and 8.13%, respectively, compared to the basic cycle.”

• cites [223] sourcePartly supported

  The SEC comparison in the paper’s “Parameter Value” passage reports reductions of 5.11% for Design 1 and 8.13% for Design 2 relative to the base case. The citing sentence matches the second figure but gives 5.14% rather than 5.11% for the first; no page number is provided for this passage. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Most of the cold energy of LNG (830 kJ/kg) is lost in seawater as it changes phase from liquid (114 K) to gas or is partially heated before being compressed and entering pipelines.

“In general, most of the cold energy of LNG (830 kJ/kg) is lost in seawater as it changes phase from liquid (114 K) to gas or is partially heated before being compressed and entering pipelines.”

• cites [217] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says that a large amount of LNG cold energy is typically discarded to seawater during regasification. Section 2 describes approximately 220 kcal/kg of recoverable energy and an LNG inlet temperature of −165 °C, but does not support the claimed 830 kJ/kg or 114 K. The cited passages also do not establish the stated sequence of partial heating, compression, and pipeline entry. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The main advantages of a mixed refrigerant system over pure refrigerant cycles are the simpler arrangement of its cycle equipment, its greater flexibility to provide cooling at different temperature levels by changing the percentage of refrigerant composition, and the system's greater reversibility in a temperature range due to refrigerant evaporation.

“The main advantages of a mixed refrigerant system over pure refrigerant cycles are the simpler arrangement of its cycle equipment, its greater flexibility to provide cooling at different temperature levels by changing the percentage of refrigerant composition, and the system’s greater reversibility in a temperature range due to refrigerant evaporation.181,270,271”

• cites [181] Mafi, M. Development in mixed refrigerant cycles for separation systems of petrochemical industries and thermo-economical optimization through combined pinch and exergy analysis. Doctoral dissertation, PhD Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khajeh Nasir Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, 2009.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [270] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [271] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The essential instruments in the targeting phase of CPEA are exergy composite diagrams (ECCs) and exergy grand composite diagrams (EGCCs), which are obtained by replacing the temperature axis in the CCs and GCCs with the Carnot factor.

“The essential instruments in the targeting phase of CPEA are exergy composite diagrams (ECCs) and exergy grand composite diagrams (EGCCs), which are obtained by replacing the temperature axis in the CCs and GCCs with the Carnot factor .283,307−310”

• cites [283] sourcePartly supported

  Section 5 (page not available in our copy) says that replacing temperature with the Carnot factor in composite curves produces exergy composite curves (ECCs), which the authors use in an exergy-loss targeting analysis. The paper discusses grand composite curves separately in Section 2, but the passages do not describe exergy grand composite curves (EGCCs) or identify ECCs and EGCCs together as essential instruments in CPEA targeting. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [307] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [308] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Composite curves (CC) and grand composite curves (GCC) are the essential tools of pinch technology to achieve the desired goals in the goal-setting stage.

“Composite curves (CC) and grand composite curves (GCC) are the essential tools of pinch technology to achieve the desired goals in the goal-setting stage.305,306”

• cites [305] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [306] sourceCould not verify

  The passage discussing prior hydrogen-liquefaction work says that researchers applied the pinch method to heat exchangers, but it does not discuss composite curves or grand composite curves. Searches for those curves and their role in goal-setting found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical energy storage techniques are often used.

“Mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical energy storage techniques are often used.318,319”

• cites [318] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [319] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page not provided) says energy may be stored in mechanical, chemical, or thermal forms and identifies compressed air storage as a mechanical method. It does not include electrical storage in that list or establish how often the listed techniques are used. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

This integration leads to higher efficiency, lower environmental influence, and lower expenses.

“This integration leads to higher efficiency, lower environmental influence, and lower expenses.175,333”

• cites [175] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [333] sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion says using nuclear waste heat improves the cycle’s overall efficiency, and the Simulation results say the process could eliminate greenhouse-gas emissions. But those results also say its efficiency is currently lower than SMR’s and that costs may fall eventually; they do not establish that the integration already delivers lower expenses. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Standards rules are essential to ensure the safety of commercial H2 equipment and processes.

“The standards generally establish technical definitions, minimum performance criteria, and fundamental principles for building and testing H2 liquefaction systems; these rules are essential to ensure the safety of commercial H2 equipment and processes.392”

• cites [392] Yang Y., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.4 describes hydrogen standards as a basis for standardization and lists standards for the safety of hydrogen systems, materials, production, and storage. This supports the general point that standards matter for hydrogen safety, but the cited paper does not establish the sentence’s more specific claim about rules for building and testing H2 liquefaction systems. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The two main purposes for the supply chain of liquid H2 in the future are decreasing the specific liquefaction cost and the SEC to 1-2 US$/kgH2 and 6-8 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.

“The two main purposes for the supply chain of liquid H2 in the future are decreasing the specific liquefaction cost and the SEC to 1–2 US$/kgH2 and 6–8 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.59”

• cites [59] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Existing liquefaction systems use adsorbents to remove impurities, which may not be suitable for large systems (i.e., >50 TPD).

“Existing liquefaction systems use adsorbents to remove impurities, which may not be suitable for large systems (i.e., >50 TPD).59”

• cites [59] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The three main factors for the development of the main standards of H2 fueling stations based on risk assessment techniques include (i) the various contexts and infrastructures involved, (ii) the probability of leakage, failure, and combustion, and (iii) the physical behavior of H2 in release, combustion, and accumulation.

“The three main factors for the development of the main standards of H2 fueling stations based on risk assessment techniques include (i) the various contexts and infrastructures involved, (ii) the probability of leakage, failure, and combustion, and (iii) the physical behavior of H2 in release, combustion, and accumulation.387”

• cites [387] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Standards generally establish technical definitions, minimum performance criteria, and fundamental principles for building and testing H2 liquefaction systems.

“The standards generally establish technical definitions, minimum performance criteria, and fundamental principles for building and testing H2 liquefaction systems; these rules are essential to ensure the safety of commercial H2 equipment and processes.392”

• cites [392] Yang Y., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.4 (page not provided) identifies hydrogen standards covering terminology, safety, construction and testing, which supports the general description of what hydrogen standards address. But the paper does not establish that these standards set minimum performance criteria or fundamental principles for building and testing H2 liquefaction systems specifically; its liquid-hydrogen examples concern vehicle tanks and fuelling interfaces. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The total on-site storage capacity at LC-39B is about 8000 m3.

“The total on-site storage capacity at LC-39B is about 8000 m3.417,418”

• cites [417] Fesmire J. E., 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [418] Fesmire J., 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract says the new tank at Launch Complex 39B will add 4,700 m³, bringing total on-site capacity to roughly 8,000 m³. It describes that total as a future capacity, not one already available, while the claim says the capacity “is” about 8,000 m³. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Increasing the stages of ortho- to para-H2 conversion lowers the SEC of H2 liquefaction, with rapid reduction from the first to the second reactor and slow reduction thereafter.

“Increasing the stages in the conversion of ortho- to para-H2 lowers the SEC and increases the investment costs.”

• Also stated in: § Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Hydrogen · plain

  “The SEC of the H2 liquefaction cycle is decreased by increasing the stages of ortho- to para-H2 conversion. The slope of reducing the SEC by increasing the ortho- to para-H2 conversion stages from the first to the second reactor is done rapidly, and from the second reactor onward, it is done slowly.164”

• cites [164] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The improvement rate of efficiency (energy and exergy) in some techniques for decreasing SEC is low compared to the reduction in total expenses and an increase in system complexities.

“Also, the improvement rate of efficiency (energy and exergy) in some techniques for decreasing the SEC is low compared to the reduction in total expenses and an increase in system complexities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In most research works on H2 liquefaction systems, more emphasis has been placed on lowering SEC while capital/operating costs, complexity levels, and relative emissions have been overlooked.

“Nonetheless, it can be noticed that in most research works on H2 liquefaction systems, more emphasis has been placed on lowering the SEC while capital/operating costs, complexity levels, and relative emissions have been overlooked.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

No comprehensive review studies have been conducted to improve the performance of hydrogen liquefaction systems considering energy consumption, energy/exergy efficiency, capital/operating costs, capacity, complexity levels, and relative emissions.

“To the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive review studies have been conducted to improve the performance of hydrogen liquefaction systems considering energy consumption, energy/exergy efficiency, capital/operating costs, capacity, complexity levels, and relative emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The majority of the H2 liquefaction factories listed are in North American countries.

“The majority of these factories are in North American countries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A hydrogen liquefaction capacity of 263 MTPD was reported in North America.

“A hydrogen liquefaction capacity of 263 MTPD was reported in North America.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

California, Louisiana, Indiana, New York, Alabama, Ontario, Quebec, and Tennessee were assigned 30, 70, 30, 40, 30, 30, 27, and 6, respectively.

“California, Louisiana, Indiana, New York, Alabama, Ontario, Quebec, and Tennessee were assigned 30, 70, 30, 40, 30, 30, 27, and 6, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

Liquid hydrogen storage faces high specific energy consumption, low exergy efficiency, high total expenses, and boil-off gas losses.

“The main challenges of liquid hydrogen (H2) storage as one of the most promising techniques for large-scale transport and long-term storage include its high specific energy consumption (SEC), low exergy efficiency, high total expenses, and boil-off gas losses.”

• Also stated in: § Hydrogen Storage Importance · plain

  “The main challenges for liquid H2 (LH2) storage include its high specific energy consumption (SEC), low exergy efficiency, and inevitable boil-off gas (IBOG) losses.39,40”

• cites [39] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [40] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Isothermal converters eliminate the flow temperature increase in adiabatic reactors, but increase the equipment required in the liquefaction procedure, increasing operational and capital costs.

“Isothermal converters are used to eliminate the flow temperature increase in adiabatic reactors, but this method increases the equipment required in the liquefaction procedure, which increases operational and capital costs.69”

• cites [69] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Continuous conversion has the highest efficiency and the lowest energy consumption compared to isothermal and adiabatic methods.

“Continuous conversion has the highest efficiency and the lowest energy consumption compared to isothermal and adiabatic methods.163”

• cites [163] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

H2 low-temperature compression is a promising strategy for H2 storage but has not yet been commercialized.

“H2 low-temperature compression (cryo-compressed) reduces the problems caused by the volume and pressure required by compression methods and the IBOG losses due to liquefaction; it is a promising strategy for H2 storage, but it has not yet been commercialized.43,44”

• cites [43] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [44] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

H2, helium, and Ne are the candidates used separately and in mixtures for the cooling and liquefaction steps.

“H2, helium, and Ne are the candidates used separately and in mixtures for the cooling and liquefaction steps.187”

• cites [187] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

H2 transportation in the gaseous state requires large storage tanks with high pressure, which is not justified due to the tank's resistance.

“Therefore, H2 transportation in the gaseous state requires large storage tanks with high pressure, which is not justified due to the tank’s resistance.143”

• cites [143] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The ortho- to para-H2 conversion is essential for LH2 production in distant transport and to decrease IBOG losses.

“Thus, the ortho- to para-H2 conversion is essential for LH2 production in distant transport and to decrease IBOG losses.”

May combine two claims.

The dehydrogenation temperatures of CH3OH, LOHCs, and NH3 are up to 420, 50-250, and 650 °C, respectively.

“The dehydrogenation temperatures of CH3OH, LOHCs, and NH3 were reported to be up to 420, 50–250, and 650 °C, respectively.53,56”

• cites [53] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [56] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Adiabatic converters are easy to accomplish but increase the flow temperature after the exchangers and require numerous beds, causing an increase in temperature and cost and a reduction in thermal efficiency.

“Adiabatic converters are easy to accomplish, but they increase the flow temperature after the exchangers and require numerous beds, which causes an increase in temperature and cost and a reduction in thermal efficiency.”

• cites [69] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ortho-H2 has a higher energy grade than para-H2 and is an excited condition; para-H2 has a lower energy surface and is easily formed at a lower temperature.

“The ortho-H2 with a higher energy grade than para-H2 is an excited condition. Also, para-H2 with a lower energy surface is easily formed at a lower temperature.157”

• cites [157] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Environmentally friendly fuels for storing H2 include chemical-based fuels such as methanol, ammonia, and formic acid, but they are not cost effective in pure H2 production due to high SEC at high temperatures for dehydrogenation and purification.

“Environmentally friendly fuels for storing H2 include chemical-based fuels such as methanol, ammonia, and formic acid. Nowadays, they are not cost effective in pure H2 production due to the high SEC at high temperatures for dehydrogenation and purification.53”

• cites [53] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Liquefaction storage systems face challenges such as a lack of efficiency, high economic expense, and a lack of creative technological advancement.

“Notwithstanding the numerous advantages of liquefaction storage systems, it should be highlighted that these technologies face numerous challenges, such as a lack of efficiency, a high economic expense, and a lack of creative technological advancement.146”

• cites [146] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The boiling and melting points for para-H2 are 0.1 K lower than those of normal H2.

“The boiling and melting point for para-H2 are 0.1 K lower than those of normal H2.151”

• cites [151] Fukai Y., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

For large H2 liquefaction factories, the high-temperature difference in low temperatures prevents using LN2; using LN2 for precooling up to 80 K is less efficient.

“For large H2 liquefaction factories, the high-temperature difference in low temperatures prevents using LN2; using LN2 for precooling up to 80 K is less efficient.”

• cites [185] Walnum H. T., 2012, Refrig. Sci. Technol.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Expanders can be used to lower the temperature of H2 during an isentropic expansion process, which always reduces the temperature of ideal and nonideal gases.

“Moreover, expanders can be used to lower the temperature of H2 during an isentropic expansion process, which always reduces the temperature of ideal and nonideal gases.186”

• cites [186] Maytal B.-Z., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Standard H2 storage tanks operate at 350-700 bar and have not yet reached the DOE storage targets of 6.5 wt% or 0.050 kgH2/L for on-board H2 storage.

“Standard H2 storage tanks are used at an operating pressure of 350–700 bar and have not yet reached the storage gravimetric/volumetric target of 6.5 wt % or 0.050 kgH2/L for the desired driving range (the Department of Energy (DOE) targets for on-board H2 storage).33−38”

• cites [33] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [34] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [35] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

H2 gas cannot be liquefied at ambient temperature only by using the J-T process, and a precooling process is necessary.

“As a result, H2 gas cannot be liquefied at ambient temperature only by using the J–T process, and a precooling process is necessary.182”

• cites [182] Weisend J. G., 1998Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Increasing the capacity of H2 liquefaction systems increases capital investment and system complexity.

“Moreover, increasing the capacity of H2 liquefaction systems increases capital investment and system complexity.”

• cites [93] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [102] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Part of the cooling can be done at a higher temperature by compressing the feed to a greater pressure, which reduces the power consumption to provide the needed refrigeration but boosts the cost of condensation at ambient temperature.

“Part of the cooling can be done at a higher temperature by compressing the feed to a greater pressure, which reduces the power consumption to provide the needed refrigeration but boosts the cost of condensation at ambient temperature.185”

• cites [185] Walnum H. T., 2012, Refrig. Sci. Technol.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The ortho- to para-H2 conversion is exothermic and temperature associated, causing some H2 to be wasted as boil-off gas when storing liquid H2.

“The ortho- to para-H2 conversion is exothermic and temperature associated. As a result, when storing liquid H2, some of the H2 is wasted, which is called boil-off gas.158,159”

• cites [158] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [159] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Claude cycle uses more heat exchangers to liquefy H2 and has greater efficiency than the L-H process.

“Also, the Claude cycle compared to the L–H process uses more heat exchangers to liquefy H2 and has a greater efficiency.68,69”

• cites [68] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [69] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Metal hydrides have problems such as high adsorption/desorption temperatures, low reversibility, mass density limitations, slow kinetics, and the energy required, and most research investigations are conducted at a laboratory scale.

“Metal hydrides have special problems, such as high adsorption/desorption temperatures, low reversibility, mass density limitations, slow kinetics, and the energy required, and most research investigations are conducted at a laboratory scale.48,49”

• cites [48] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [49] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

By decreasing the temperature to the normal boiling point of H2 (21.2 K), approximately 99.9% para-H2 can be produced.

“By decreasing the temperature to the normal boiling point of H2 (21.2 K), approximately 99.9% para-H2 can be produced.”

May combine two claims.

The selection of the appropriate precooling refrigerant and the optimal configuration of the precooling section provide promising guidelines for reducing the total SEC in the liquefaction structure.

“The selection of the appropriate precooling refrigerant and the optimal configuration of the precooling section provide promising guidelines for reducing the total SEC in the liquefaction structure.176”

• cites [176] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Most studies on physical adsorption for H2 storage are on a laboratory scale and did not meet DOE technical requirements.

“Most of the studies about this method are on a laboratory scale that did not meet the DOE technical requirements.30,45−47”

• cites [30] Kayfeci, M.; Keçebaş, A. Hydrogen storage. In Solar Hydrogen Production; Calise, F., D’Accadia, M. D., Santarelli, M., Lanzini, A., Ferrero, D., Eds. Academic Press, 2019; Chapter 4, pp 85–110. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [45] Bruch L. W., 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [46] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Using LAC recovery instead of the two-stage MRC in the H2 liquefaction system reduced the SEC, COP, and exergy yield from 6.42 to 5.955 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1642 to 0.1280, and 39.41% to 29.3%, respectively.

“The results revealed that using LAC recovery instead of the two-stage MRC in the H2 liquefaction system reduced the SEC, COP, and exergy yield from 6.42 to 5.955 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1642 to 0.1280, and 39.41% to 29.3%, respectively.”

• cites [85] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC, COP, and exergy yield in the basic H2 liquefaction process were 7.69 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1710, and 39.5%, respectively.

“The SEC, COP, and exergy yield in the basic H2 liquefaction process71 were 7.69 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1710, and 39.5%, respectively.”

• cites [71] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC, specific CO2 emissions, and exergy yield were calculated to be 6.71 kWh/kgLH2, 2.641 kgCO2/kgLH2, and 35.7%, respectively.

“The SEC, specific CO2 emissions, and exergy yield were calculated to be 6.71 kWh/kgLH2, 2.641 kgCO2/kgLH2, and 35.7%, respectively.”

• cites [26] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Mixed refrigerant precooling systems can be used as an auxiliary precooling part of H2 liquefaction systems and consume less power and are more efficient than closed single-component cycles.

“Mixed refrigerant precooling systems can be used as an auxiliary precooling part of H2 liquefaction systems. These systems consume less power and are more efficient than closed single-component cycles.175”

• cites [175] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The exergy yield and SEC of the system were calculated to be 31.6% and 12.7 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.

“The exergy yield and SEC of the system were calculated to be 31.6% and 12.7 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.”

• cites [75] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The COP and exergy yield of the developed liquefaction process were 0.162 and 67.9%, respectively.

“Also, the COP and exergy yield of the developed liquefaction process were 0.162 and 67.9%, respectively.”

• cites [70] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Claude process has higher liquefaction efficiency and lower power consumption than the L-H process.

“The Claude process has higher liquefaction efficiency and lower power consumption than the L–H process.170”

• cites [170] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Claude process with a helium precooler, the size of the compressor is smaller than that in the Claude process, but three separate compressors are needed for H2, nitrogen, and helium.

“In this process, the size of the compressor is smaller than that in the Claude process, but three separate compressors are needed for H2, nitrogen, and helium.189”

• cites [189] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The exergy yield, SEC, and COP in the basic H2 liquefaction process were 39.5%, 7.69 kWh/kgLH2, and 0.1710, respectively.

“The exergy yield, SEC, and COP in the basic H2 liquefaction process92 were 39.5%, 7.69 kWh/kgLH2, and 0.1710, respectively.”

• cites [92] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC, COP, and exergy yield in the optimized H2 liquefaction system were calculated to be 11.52 kWh/kgLH2, 0.346, and 69.44%, respectively.

“The SEC, COP, and exergy yield in the optimized H2 liquefaction system were calculated to be 11.52 kWh/kgLH2, 0.346, and 69.44%, respectively.”

• cites [73] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The cost of liquid H2 produced by the ORC and ACC was 3.8 and 3.6 $/kgLH2, respectively.

“The cost of liquid H2 produced by the ORC and ACC was 3.8 and 3.6 $/kgLH2, respectively.”

• cites [261] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Claude process with a helium precooler, helium gas in addition to LN2 is used for precooling, reducing the pressure required for the compressor's H2 output and the SEC.

“Helium gas, in addition to LN2, is used for precooling in the Claude process with a helium precooler. As a result, the pressure required for the compressor’s H2 output as well as its SEC are reduced.”

• cites [189] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Asadnia et al. found that the SEC, COP, and exergy yield of the H2 liquefaction system were 6.47 kWh/kgLH2, 0.2034, and 45.5%, respectively.

“The SEC, COP, and exergy yield of the H2 liquefaction system were 6.47 kWh/kgLH2, 0.2034, and 45.5%, respectively.”

• cites [92] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The COP of the Claude liquefaction process was 0.0120, and its exergy yield was 67.3%.

“The COP of the Claude liquefaction process was 0.0120, and its exergy yield was 67.3%.”

• cites [70] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Mixed refrigerant cooling systems, absorption/ejector refrigerating cycles, LNG regasification operations for precooling, operational optimization, pinch and exergy analyses, and integration with the same manufacturing process can help reduce the SEC.

“Mixed refrigerant cooling systems, absorption/ejector refrigerating cycles, LNG regasification operations for precooling, operational optimization, pinch and exergy analyses, and integration with the same manufacturing process can help to reduce the SEC.”

May combine two claims.

With the increment in geothermal rate, the exergy and energy utilization factors of the hybrid structure decline from 0.21 to 0.13 and from 0.059 to 0.037, respectively.

“With the increment in geothermal rate, the exergy and energy utilization factors of the hybrid structure decline from 0.21 to 0.13 and from 0.059 to 0.037, respectively.262”

• cites [262] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC and thermodynamic efficiency due to ortho- to para-H2 conversion in the basic H2 liquefaction system in the Ingolstadt factory were 13.58 kWh/kgLH2 and 21.28%, respectively.

“Also, the SEC and thermodynamic efficiency due to the ortho- to para-H2 conversion in the basic H2 liquefaction system in the Ingolstadt factory were 13.58 kWh/kgLH2 and 21.28%, respectively.205”

• cites [205] Krasae-in, S. Efficient hydrogen liquefaction processes. Doctoral Thesis, NTNU, 2013.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Later, Haselden et al., Perrett, and Gaumer et al. expanded and developed the idea of utilizing mixed refrigerants for various applications.

“Later, Haselden et al.,273,274 Perrett,275 and Gaumer et al.276 expanded and developed the idea of utilizing mixed refrigerants for various applications.”

• cites [273] Barber N., 1957, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [274] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [275] Perret, J. C. Method and apparatus for the cooling and low temperature liquefaction of gaseous mixtures. US Patent 3364685, 1968.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The SEC in the H2 liquefaction unit was calculated to be 10.06 kWh/kgLH2.

“The SEC in the H2 liquefaction unit was calculated to be 10.06 kWh/kgLH2.”

• cites [72] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Riaz et al. found that using LNG cold recovery in the precooling stage reduced the total amount of refrigerant by 50% and the SEC by 40%, and reported an exergy efficiency of 42.25%.

“This structural modification reduced the total amount of refrigerant by 50% and the SEC by 40%. The exergy efficiency of the hybrid design was reported to be 42.25%.”

• cites [80] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Using H2 as refrigerant has drawbacks including inability to decrease temperature below the H2 boiling point, high SEC of compressors, and high penetration in equipment due to low molecular mass and low system efficiency.

“Its application includes drawbacks such as the inability to decrease the temperature below the H2 boiling point, the high SEC of compressors, and high penetration in equipment structure due to low molecular mass and low system efficiency.165,194”

• cites [165] Quack H., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [194] Notardonato, W. U. Analysis and testing of an integrated refrigeration and storage system for liquid hydrogen zero boil-off, liquefaction, and densification. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Florida, 2006.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

Yang et al. found that the SEC decreased from 13.58 to 11.05 kWh/kgLH2 in the modified structure using LNG cold recovery.

“Furthermore, the SEC decreased from 13.58 to 11.05 kWh/kgLH2 in the modified structure.”

• cites [84] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SEC, COP, and exergy yield of the developed structure were calculated to be 7.405 kWh/kgLH2, 0.103, and 0.2359, respectively.

“The SEC, COP, and exergy yield of the developed structure were calculated to be 7.405 kWh/kgLH2, 0.103, and 0.2359, respectively.”

• cites [264] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To prevent weakening of thermal properties, the maximum usable amount of Ne is 30%.

“To prevent the weakening of the thermal properties, the maximum usable amount of Ne was suggested to be 30%.196”

• cites [196] Quack H., 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The unit exergetic liquefaction price of H2 in the optimal state was 1.114 $/kgLH2.

“The unit exergetic liquefaction price of H2 in the optimal state was 1.114 $/kgLH2.”

• cites [72] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The optimal exergetic cost of liquid H2 was calculated to be 1.349 $/kgLH2.

“Also, the optimal exergetic cost of liquid H2 was calculated to be 1.349 $/kgLH2.73”

• cites [73] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The specific energy consumption (SEC) of current H2 liquefaction systems is 10.8-12.7 kWh/kgLH2 for the Claude system and 12.3-13.4 kWh/kgLH2 for the Brayton structure.

“The SEC of current H2 liquefaction systems is 10.8–12.7 kWh/kgLH2 for the Claude system and 12.3–13.4 kWh/kgLH2 for the Brayton structure.192”

• cites [192] Ohlig K., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ghorbani et al. found that the developed process' SEC decreased from 4.410 to 4.022 kWh/kgLH2 compared to the basic plant, and its exergy efficiency increased from 55.47% to 73.75%.

“The results showed that the developed process’ SEC decreased from 4.410 to 4.022 kWh/kgLH2 compared to the basic plant,170 and its exergy efficiency increased from 55.47% to 73.75%.”

• cites [74] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [170] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In H2 liquefaction with the Claude and L-H methods, cooling is achieved by isentropic expansion through the expander and isothermal expansion by the J-T valve.

“In H2 liquefaction with the Claude and L–H methods, cooling is achieved by isentropic expansion through the expander and isothermal expansion by the J–T valve.185”

• cites [185] Walnum H. T., 2012, Refrig. Sci. Technol.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Helium refrigerant and Ne gas were proposed to solve the problems caused by H2; helium's larger molecular mass significantly reduces power consumption and its penetration decreases due to larger molecules.

“Helium refrigerant and Ne gas were proposed to solve the problems caused by H2; the larger molecular mass of helium significantly reduces the power consumption, and its penetration decreases due to the larger molecules of helium.78,195”

• cites [78] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [195] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The thermodynamic efficiency according to ortho- to para-H2 conversion and the SEC of the Krasae-in et al. system were 54.02% and 5.35 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.

“The thermodynamic efficiency according to ortho- to para-H2 conversion and the SEC were obtained at 54.02% and 5.35 kWh/kgLH2, respectively.”

• cites [89] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Employing geothermal power in the ACC reduces the power required for H2 liquefaction and is more advantageous than using geothermal power output in a liquefaction process.

“It was found that employing geothermal power in the ACC reduces the power required for H2 liquefaction and is more advantageous than using geothermal power output in a liquefaction process.260”

• cites [260] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The ACC could cool H2 gas to −26.9 °C; the COP of the ACC was 0.556 with an exergy yield of 67.0%.

“The ACC could cool H2 gas to −26.9 °C; the COP of the ACC was 0.556 with an exergy yield of 67.0%.”

• cites [70] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1936, Podbielniam presented the first mixed refrigerant cryogenic cycle.

“In 1936, Podbielniam272 presented the first mixed refrigerant cryogenic cycle.”

• cites [272] Podbielniak, W.J. Art of refrigeration. U.S. Patent 2041725, 1986.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mixed refrigerants can be used in all refrigeration systems, including single-compression refrigeration cycles, CRCs, and multistage refrigeration units.

“Mixed refrigerants can be used in all refrigeration systems, including single-compression refrigeration cycles, CRCs, and multistage refrigeration units.197”

• cites [197] Smith R., 2005Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

An increase in the input H2 pressure fixes the problem of fluctuating specific heat, and the compression process reduces the cooling load over a wide temperature range, but the variable cooling load should be managed by adjusting the cooling power.

“An increase in the input H2 pressure fixes this problem, somehow. The compression process reduces the cooling load over a wide temperature range, but the variable cooling load should be managed by adjusting the cooling power.188”

• cites [188] 1980Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many studies have focused on using mixed refrigerants to reach low temperatures.

“Besides, many studies have focused on using mixed refrigerants to reach low temperatures.280,281”

• cites [280] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [281] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Several mixed refrigerants have been developed with various precooling temperatures because the boiling point of the mixture depends on the composition.

“Several mixed refrigerants have been developed with various precooling temperatures because the boiling point of the mixture depends on the composition.80,184”

• cites [80] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [184] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The LH2 cost rate and total exergy efficiency based on the Claude cycle were calculated to be 7.03 $/kg and 70.52%, respectively.

“Also, the LH2 cost rate and total exergy efficiency based on the Claude cycle were calculated to be 7.03 $/kg and 70.52%, respectively.”

• cites [323] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The system purity and SEC were 99.99% and 18.01-41.2 kWh/kmol, respectively.

“The outcomes demonstrated that the system purity and SEC were 99.99% and 18.01–41.2 kWh/kmol, respectively.”

• cites [157] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

According to the DOE, the reported cost of electricity is 42.68 $/MWh, and the costs of production, terminal, trucking, liquefaction, station, and levelized cost for liquid H2 supply chain (27 TPD) are 2.24, 0.39, 0.68, 2.75, 8.18, and 14.24 $/kgH2, respectively.

“According to the DOE,366 the reported cost of electricity is 42.68 $/MWh, and the costs of production, terminal, trucking, liquefaction, station, and levelized cost for liquid H2 supply chain (27 TPD) are 2.24, 0.39, 0.68, 2.75, 8.18, and 14.24 $/kgH2, respectively.”

• cites [366] Connelly E., 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Thermal systems in operating conditions are being updated in order to conserve the SEC, decrease total expenses, and boost up structural capacity.

“Thermal systems in operating conditions are being updated in order to conserve the SEC, decrease total expenses, and boost up structural capacity.303”

• cites [303] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pinch technology is introduced as a powerful and effective tool for thermodynamic analysis of process industries and optimization of heat exchanger networks.

“Pinch technology is introduced as a powerful and effective tool for thermodynamic analysis of process industries and optimization of heat exchanger networks.302”

• cites [302] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Minor changes in equipment can be used based on optimization methods to further decrease the H2 liquefaction cost and improve the factory capacity.

“Minor changes in equipment can be used based on optimization methods to further decrease the H2 liquefaction cost and improve the factory capacity.102”

• cites [102] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The LH2 cost rate and total exergy efficiency based on the inverse Brayton cycle were calculated to be 7.03 $/kg and 61.73%, respectively.

“The LH2 cost rate and total exergy efficiency based on the inverse Brayton cycle were calculated to be 7.03 $/kg and 61.73%, respectively.”

• cites [323] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The dwindling subsurface resources and ramping up pollution are the two main concerns of governments for future generations.

“The dwindling subsurface resources and ramping up pollution are the two main concerns of governments for future generations.316”

• cites [316] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The H2 production and storage processes can be integrated with nuclear power plants, renewable heat sources, and waste heat from industries.

“The H2 production and storage processes can be integrated with nuclear power plants,335−340 renewable heat sources,341−348 and waste heat from industries (i.e., chemical plants, furnaces, and incinerators).349−355”

• cites [335] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [341] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [349] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC, COP, and total exergy yield were obtained to be 5.462 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1384, and 58.73%.

“The SEC, COP, and total exergy yield were obtained to be 5.462 kWh/kgLH2, 0.1384, and 58.73%.”

• cites [175] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Renewable energy sources, such as geothermal, solar, wind, biomass, and tidal, can reduce energy and environmental concerns because they are compatible with the environment and available.

“Renewable energy sources, such as geothermal, solar, wind, biomass, and tidal, can reduce energy and environmental concerns because they are compatible with the environment and available.317”

• cites [317] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fuzzy Bellman-Zadeh, LINMAP, and TOPSIS methods were employed to make decisions in multiobjective optimization.

“Then, fuzzy Bellman–Zadeh, LINMAP, and TOPSIS methods were employed to make decisions in multiobjective optimization.179”

• cites [179] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The precooling process can be substituted by using inexpensive LN2 that comes directly from the air separation system to generate liquid oxygen.

“Besides, the precooling process can be substituted by using inexpensive LN2 that comes directly from the air separation system to generate liquid oxygen.102”

• cites [102] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Linnhoff and Tjoe introduced the first systematic method for modifying and optimizing the thermal systems.

“Linnhoff and Tjoe304 introduced the first systematic method for modifying and optimizing the thermal systems.”

• cites [304] Tjoe T. N., 1986, Chem. Eng.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

H2 is a clean fuel that can support stationary and mobile applications.

“H2 is a clean fuel that can support stationary and mobile applications.320,321”

• cites [320] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [321] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The amount of H2 demanded to meet existing climate commitments by governments and to reach net-zero carbon emission goals is predicted to be 200 and 621 million tonnes in 2030 and 2060, respectively.

“The amount of H2 demanded to meet existing climate commitments by governments and to reach net-zero carbon emission goals is predicted to be 200 and 621 million tonnes in 2030 and 2060, respectively.25”

• cites [25] Global Hydrogen Review, International Energy Agency 2021, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/5bd46d7b-906a-4429-abda-e9c507a62341/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf (Accessed Jan 2023).Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Introducing a suitable initial guess in the first stage and reducing the examination of all possible modes in optimizing the developed system were the main advantages of the developed method.

“Introducing a suitable initial guess in the first stage and reducing the examination of all possible modes in optimizing the developed system were the main advantages of the developed method.”

• cites [311] Smith R., 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some integrated structures were developed for H2 purification, but no solutions were provided for its storage.

“Also, some integrated structures were developed for H2 purification, but no solutions were provided for its storage.246,334”

• cites [246] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [334] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The exergy efficiency, liquid H2 rate, and LCOH were calculated to be 23.34%, 154.95 kg/h, and 1.827 $/kg, respectively.

“The exergy efficiency, liquid H2 rate, and LCOH were calculated to be 23.34%, 154.95 kg/h, and 1.827 $/kg, respectively.”

• cites [298] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The exergy yield of the hybrid system was reported to be 13-66.5%.

“The exergy yield of the hybrid system was reported to be 13–66.5%.”

• cites [358] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By combining the NLP/PSO method and the CPEA perspectives, Mafi et al. introduced the optimal arrangement of the refrigeration cycle.

“By combining the NLP/PSO method and the CPEA perspectives, they introduced the optimal arrangement of the refrigeration cycle.”

• cites [282] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [284] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cogeneration systems provide a clear potential path for clean energy supply chains due to their high efficiency and low energy waste.

“Cogeneration systems provide a clear potential path for clean energy supply chains due to their high efficiency and low energy waste.330”

• cites [330] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Compressors can be eliminated from H2 production and liquefaction plants, lowering the production costs and SEC.

“Compressors can be eliminated from H2 production and liquefaction plants, lowering the production costs and SEC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

High-temperature geothermal wells located in North America include KS-13 at 1050 °C (Hawaii, United States), Wilson No. 1 at 400 °C (California, United States), H-8,11,12,26,27,29 at >380 °C (Los Humeros, Mexico), Prati-32 at 400 °C (Geysers, California, United States), and IID-14 at 400 °C (Imperial Valley, California, United States).

“High-temperature geothermal wells located in North America include KS-13 at 1050 °C (Hawaii, United States),406 Wilson No. 1 at 400 °C (California, United States),407 H-8,11,12,26,27,29 at >380 °C (Los Humeros, Mexico),408 Prati-32 at 400 °C (Geysers, California, United States),409 and IID-14 at 400 °C (Imperial Valley, California, United States).410”

• cites [406] Teplow W., 2009, GRC Trans.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [407] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [408] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

H2 liquefaction costs for 100 TPD can be decreased by about 50% and 67% compared to conventional 25 and 5 TPD liquefier systems, respectively.

“The results indicate that H2 liquefaction costs for 100 TPD can be decreased by about 50% and 67% compared to conventional 25 and 5 TPD liquefier systems, respectively.93”

• cites [93] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Four additional H2 liquefaction factories have been recently announced to aid the growing H2 market.

“Four additional H2 liquefaction factories have been recently announced to aid the growing H2 market.377”

• cites [377] Elgowainy, A.; Frank, E. Opportunities and Challenges of Liquid Hydrogen Supply Chain. Presentation at the Liquid Hydrogen Technologies Workshop; https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-03/Liquid%20H2%20Workshop-ANL.pdf (Accessed May 2022).Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The environmental investigation of a liquid H2 production system integrated with an ACC, a LAC recovery, and an ORC plant demonstrated that the CO2 emission and its total specific were 96372 TPD and 2.641 kgCO2/kgLH2, respectively.

“The environmental investigation of a liquid H2 production system integrated with an ACC, a LAC recovery, and an ORC plant demonstrated that the CO2 emission and its total specific were reported to be 96372 TPD and 2.641 kgCO2/kgLH2, respectively.26”

• cites [26] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The SEC and exergy yield in industrial applications are 12.5-15 kWh/kgLH2 and 19.3-23.1%, respectively, such as Praxair (United States) and Linde (Germany).

“The SEC and exergy yield in industrial applications are 12.5–15 kWh/kgLH2 and 19.3–23.1%, respectively, such as Praxair (United States) and Linde (Germany).58”

• cites [58] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

High-temperature wells can be used to produce and store hydrogen.

“High-temperature wells can be used to produce and store hydrogen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Liquid H2 storage systems face problems, including a high SEC, low exergy efficiency, high cost, and boil-off gas losses.

“Liquid H2 storage systems face problems, including a high SEC, low exergy efficiency, high cost, and boil-off gas losses.”

May combine two claims.

In cycles in which the LNG regasification process replaces mixed refrigerant cycles, the whole configuration exergy yield and the refrigeration cycle COP decrease.

“In the cycles in which the LNG regasification process replaces mixed refrigerant cycles, the whole configuration exergy yield and the refrigeration cycle COP decrease.”

May combine two claims.

When a second reactor is added, the SEC decreases and then decreases gradually with each reactor added.

“When a second reactor is added, the SEC decreases and then decreases gradually with each reactor added.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Liquefaction of H2 leads to a decrease in volume and an increase in density compared to the gaseous state.

“Liquefaction of H2 leads to a decrease in volume and an increase in density compared to the gaseous state.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Optimization choices include refrigerant mixture, pinch point, and high/low pressure of the refrigeration cycle.

“Optimization choices include refrigerant mixture, pinch point, and high/low pressure of the refrigeration cycle.”

May combine two claims.

The design of H2 liquefaction cycles along with industrial H2 production units at high pressure can lead to the elimination of compressors, reducing the production costs and SEC.

“The design of H2 liquefaction cycles along with industrial H2 production units at high pressure can lead to the elimination of compressors, reducing the production costs and SEC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Because the degree of freedom of the precooling cycle is greater than that of the cryogenic cycle, optimization methods prioritize the precooling cycles.

“Because the degree of freedom of the precooling cycle is greater than that of the cryogenic cycle, optimization methods prioritize the precooling cycles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).