The Speaker's Experience of Stuttering: Measuring Spontaneity
Abstract
Purpose: This study measures the experience of spontaneous speech in everyday speaking situations. Spontaneity of speech is a novel concept developed to account for the subjective experience of speaking. Spontaneous speech is characterized by little premeditation and effortless production, and it is enjoyable and meaningful. Attention is not directed on the physical production of speech. Spontaneity is intended to be distinct from fluency so that it can be used to describe both stuttered and fluent speech. This is the first study to attempt to measure the concept of spontaneity of speech. Method: The experience sampling method was used with 44 people who stutter. They were surveyed five times a day for 1 week through their cell phones. They reported on their perceived spontaneity, fluency, and speaking context. Results: Results indicate that spontaneity and fluency are independent, though correlated, constructs that vary with context. Importantly, an increase in spontaneity significantly decreases the adverse impact of stuttering on people's lives. Fluency did not significantly affect adverse life impact of stuttering. Conclusion: Findings support a theoretical construct of spontaneity that is distinct from speech fluency and that can inform our views of stuttering and approaches to stuttering treatment.
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The field of SLP has historically framed stuttering as a problem to be fixed, relying on external observations and control.
“The field of SLP has historically framed stuttering as a problem to be fixed, relying on external observations and control [22, 99].”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
An increasing number of voices from the stuttering community have called for the inclusion of PWS in shaping knowledge about stuttering.
“an increasing number of voices from the stuttering community have called for the inclusion of PWS in shaping knowledge about stuttering [22, 99]”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
From speakers' perspectives, stuttering involves more than observable behaviors; it also encompasses cognitive and affective reactions, including feelings, bodily sensations, and cognitive efforts that arise when anticipating moments of stuttering.
“From speakers' perspectives, stuttering involves more than observable behaviors; it also encompasses cognitive and affective reactions, including feelings, bodily sensations, and cognitive efforts that arise when anticipating moments of stuttering [22].”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
The stuttering community advocates for more diverse evaluation measures, such as spontaneity rather than fluency.
“Reflecting similar ideas, the stuttering community advocates for more diverse evaluation measures, such as spontaneity rather than fluency [22].”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
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Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 152 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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Variability of Stuttering: Behavior and Impact
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Statistical Considerations for Analyzing Ecological Momentary Assessment Data
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Self-citationInterrupting Ableism in Stuttering Therapy and Research: Practical Suggestions
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Self-citationCARE Model of Treatment for stuttering: Theory, assumptions, and preliminary findings
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Repetitive Negative Thinking in Adolescents Who Stutter
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Covert and overt stuttering: Concepts and comparative findings
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Coalson, G. A., Byrd, C. T., Werle, D., Croft, R. L., & Mahometa, M. J. (2024) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-23-00234 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-perceived outcomes of informative and apologetic self-disclosure: A mixed methods study
Young, M. M., Byrd, C. T., & GABEL, R. M. (2023) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2023.106387 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Lei, X., Sasisekaran, J., & Nguyen‐Feng, V. N. (2024) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2024.106061 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Stuttering severity and social anxiety among adults who stutter: A multilevel analysis
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Can Stoicism inspire stuttering intervention? The clinical usefulness of an ancient philosophy
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3Es: An All-Inclusive Stuttering Therapy Tool
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A phenomenological exploration of the contextual variability of stuttering
Ortiz-Alvarez, A. D., & Arenas, R. M. (2025) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2025.106120 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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A Conversation With Three Cluttering Community Leaders: A Preliminary Sampling of Perspectives
Meza, S., & Scott, K. S. (2022) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2022_persp-21-00248 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Beyond the Stuttering Toolbox: The Concept of Meta-Therapy
Gore, K., & Margulis, C. L. (2023) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2023_persp-22-00245 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Weak Vestibular Response in Persistent Developmental Stuttering
Gattie, M., Lieven, E., & Kluk, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2021.662127 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Developmental stuttering as a neurodiverse speech style
Mori, K. (2024) · Nippon Onkyo Gakkaishi/Acoustical science and technology/Nihon Onkyo Gakkaishi · doi:10.1250/ast.e24.37 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Eichorn, N., & Pirutinsky, S. (2022) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2022_jslhr-21-00426 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationStuttering treatment goals beyond fluency: A non-Western perspective
Choi, D., Chang, S., Kim, S., & Lee, S. (2025) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2025.106582 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Linguistic Markers in Spontaneous Speech: Insights into Subjective Cognitive Decline (Review)
Segkouli, S., Γκιόκα, Μ., Kokkas, S., Votis, K., Valero, S., Miguel, A., Antoniades, A., Charalambous, E., & Manias, G. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13222888 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tang, X., Li, J., & Wu, S. (2026) · Proceedings of the 2026 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790405 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Reflecting similar ideas, the stuttering community advocates for more diverse evaluation measures, such as spontaneity rather than fluency [22].”
InfluentialWęsierska, K., Wyrwas, K., & Zarzycki, M. (2025) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2025.106581 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Perceived Public Speaking Performance Predicts English Communication Confidence
Oktavira, N. M., & Santoso, D. R. (2025) · Academia Open · doi:10.21070/acopen.10.2025.11896 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Variability in Stuttering Severity and Other Symptoms Across Three Fluency States
Brown, E. C., Hedinger, T., & Saltuklaroglu, T. (2024) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-24-00011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Self-citationSocioecological Determinants of Speech Evaluation and Treatment Among Children Who Stutter
Briley, P. M., & Jacobs, M. (2025) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-24-00483 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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The effect of manual movements on stuttering in individuals with down syndrome
Maessen, B., Zink, I., Maes, B., & Rombouts, E. (2023) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2023.105958 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cripping AI: Reimagining AI Through Lived Disability Experiences
Tang, X., Lin, T.-A., Li, J., & Wu, S. (2026) · Proceedings of the 2026 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3805689.3806744 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…real-world practices, rather than relying solely on de-contextualized, isolated, time-bound benchmarks (e.g., instead of assuming model outputs as correct, blind people often situate their interpretation of model output in concrete tasks such as searching for a photo or reading a document [244].)”
Höbler, F., Liu, Y., Beltz, A. M., Becker, H. C., Angstadt, M., Guenther, F. H., & Chang, S. (2025) · Neurobiology of Language · doi:10.1162/nol.a.26 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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CARE Model Assessment for school-age children who stutter: An overview and preliminary findings
Byrd, C. T., Coalson, G. A., & Conture, E. G. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736190 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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How Is Effort Defined in Communication Sciences and Disorders? A Systematic Review of Literature
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A descriptive phenomenological exploration of how people who stutter experience the U.S. labor force
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Eye movement as a simple, cost-effective tool for people who stutter: A case study
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL’S PERCEPTION OF DOMINANT PERSONALITY TRAITS OF STAMMERERS
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11 age children ^school-age children School-Age Children
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Identity Development in Adolescents Who Stutter: Three Stories
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Targeted speech sounds and their association to children’s grade level and therapy dosage
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Self-citationA lifelong journey with stuttering: Experiences of adults who stutter in Türkiye
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Fluency Should Not Be a Goal in Stuttering Therapy
Jackson, E. S. (2026) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2026_jslhr-26-00111
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Understanding the Concept of Fluency in Stuttering: A Grounded-Theory Study
Roman, A. B., Constantino, C. D., & Turner, J. E. (2026) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2026_ajslp-26-00280
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- Authors
- Constantino, C. D., Eichorn, N., Buder, E. H., Beck, J. G., & Manning, W. H.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- University of Memphis (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
- Published
- 2020-04-27
- Volume
- 63
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 983-1001
- ISSN
- 1092-4388 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-9102
- OpenAlex
- W3014024180
- Cited by
- 66
- References
- 152
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 3.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Stuttering Research and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Voice and Speech Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
- Keywords
- stuttering, speech fluency, stuttering treatment, ecological momentary assessment
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Surveys and Questionnaires, Speech, Speech Perception, Stuttering
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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