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Methodological issues in grounded theory
Open accessAbstract
Examination of the qualitative methodological literature shows that there appear to be conflicting opinions and unresolved issues regarding the nature and process of grounded theory. Researchers proposing to utilize this method would therefore be wise to consider these conflicting opinions. This paper therefore identifies and attempts to address four key issues, namely, sampling, creativity and reflexivity, the use of literature, and precision within grounded theory. The following recommendations are made. When utilizing a grounded method researchers need to consider their research question, clarify what level of theory is likely to be induced from their study, and then decide when they intend to access and introduce the second body of literature. They should acknowledge that in the early stages of data collection, some purposeful sampling appears to occur. In their search for conceptually dense theory, grounded theory researchers may wish to free themselves from the constraints that limit their use of creativity and tacit knowledge. Furthermore, the interests of researchers might be served by attention to issues of precision including, avoiding method slurring, ensuring theoretical coding occurs, and using predominantly one method of grounded theory while explaining and describing any deviation away from this chosen method. Such mindfulness and the resulting methodological rigour is likely to increase the overall quality of the inquiry and enhance the credibility of the findings.
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“This bottom-up approach to theory development aims to minimize the influence of prior knowledge and researchers’ subjective biases (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
In the citing paper
“Therefore, we conclude that all nodes in this study are sufficiently dense, and the relationships among nodes are adequately described, reaching theoretical saturation (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
In the citing paper
“It is a theory generated from the data, rather than a theory formulated prior to the data (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
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“Theoretical sampling focused on refining ideas, developing categories and adding to the fullness of the understanding of the concepts (Cutcliffe 2000), by recruiting participants with different characteristics and experiences of surgery and returning to the young people and their parents already interviewed to collect…”
BackgroundAn exploration of Indonesian nurses’ perceptions of barriers to paediatric pain management
Mediani, . S., Duggan, R., Chapman, R., Hutton, A. E., & Shields, L. E. (2017) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493517715146 · Cited by 41
“Data saturation determined sampling size, and data collection was ceased when information from participants became repetitive (Cutcliffe, 2000; Schreiber, 2001).”
BackgroundLife with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: striving for ‘controlled co‐existence’
Cooney, A., Mee, L., Casey, D., Murphy, K., Kirwan, C., Burke, E., Conway, Y., Healy, D., Mooney, B., Murphy, J., et al. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2012.04285.x · Cited by 40
Ung, C. O. L., Harnett, J., Hu, H., & Desselle, S. P. (2019) · American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy · doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxz079 · Cited by 40
Desselle, S. P. (2015) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2015.10.002 · Cited by 40
Rural Latino health and the built environment: a systematic review
Stone, G. A., Fernandez, M., & DeSantiago, A. (2019) · Ethnicity and Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2019.1606899 · Cited by 39
“Grounded theory is an inductive, data-driven, and contextualized qualitative approach that requires in-depth, reflexive data collection and identifies emerging patterns, processes, and relationships (Cutcliffe 2000; Dunne 2011).”
BackgroundCatallo, C., Jack, S. M., Ciliska, D. K., & MacMillan, H. L. (2012) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06128.x · Cited by 39
“To explain these findings, grounded theory was considered the best qualitative method to understand these quantitative sub-analysis results due to its ability to both describe and explain a system of behaviour and seek, as an end result, a substantive mid-range theory grounded in the data (Cutcliffe 2000).”
MethodGrounding osteopathic research – Introducing grounded theory
Thomson, O. P., Petty, N. J., & Scholes, J. (2013) · International journal of osteopathic medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ijosm.2013.07.010 · Cited by 49
The impact of nurses' values on the prevention of pressure ulcers.
Samuriwo, R. (2010) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2010.19.sup5.77702 · Cited by 36
“The perceived shortcomings of Glaserian and Straussian grounded theory have resulted in a number of modifications to the data analysis, interpretation, reflexivity and the relationship between researcher and participants in grounded theory (Cutcliffe 2000a; Hall and Callery 2001; Llewellyn 2005).”
BackgroundBland, A. J., & Tobbell, J. (2016) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2016.05.011 · Cited by 38
Vandewalle, J., Debyser, B., Beeckman, D., Vandecasteele, T., Deproost, E., Hecke, A. V., & Verhaeghe, S. T. L. (2017) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.12332 · Cited by 46
Brod, M. I., Waldman, L. T., Smith, A. R., & Karpf, D. B. (2019) · Patient · doi:10.1007/s40271-019-00388-5 · Cited by 38
Grounded Theory: Exploiting the Potential for Occupational Therapy
Stanley, M. J., & Cheek, J. (2003) · British Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1177/030802260306600403 · Cited by 41
“To avoid ‘method slurring’, researchers are advised to make explicit which version of grounded theory they are using, as well as justifying and describing any deviation from the chosen approach (Cutcliffe 2000).”
A Practical Guide and Assessment on Using ChatGPT to Conduct Grounded Theory: Tutorial
Yue, Y., Liu, D., Lv, Y., Hao, J., & Cui, P. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/70122 · Cited by 40
Sibbel, A. M. (2010) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine · Cited by 35
Grounded Theory in Practice: Novice Researchers' Choice Between Straussian and Glaserian
M. Alammar, F., Intezari, A., Cardow, A., & J. Pauleen, D. (2019) · Journal of Management Inquiry · doi:10.1177/1056492618770743 · Cited by 34
“As there is no limit set on the number of informants needed to begin a grounded theory study (Cutcliffe, 2000), data analysis began with the data from the first four informants.”
Inappropriate sexual behaviour and dementia: An exploration of staff experiences
Hayward, L. E., Robertson, N., & Knight, C. (2012) · Dementia · doi:10.1177/1471301211434673 · Cited by 38
“regarding their area of interest (Cutliffe, 2000; Henwood & Pidgeon, 2003; Meyrick, 2006).”
BackgroundThe use of grounded theory to study interaction
Maijala, H., Paavilainen, E., & Åstedt-Kurki, P. M. (2004) · Nurse Researcher · doi:10.7748/nr2004.01.11.2.40.c5921 · Cited by 34
The transition into adulthood for children with a severe intellectual disability: parents’ views
Biswas, S., Tickle, A., Moghaddam, N. G., & Almack, K. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2016.1138598 · Cited by 32
“…of an adult2 with a severe intellectual disability; (ii) could read, write, and speak English; and (iii) had witnessed their child’s transition into adulthood — this was necessary as little experience would limit the data and subsequent theory of the phenomenon being studied (Cutcliffe, 2000).”
BackgroundHelping or hindering: the role of nurse managers in the transfer of practice development learning
Currie, K., Tolson, D., & Booth, J. (2007) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2834.2007.00804.x · Cited by 32
Pierce, D., Munier, V., & Myers, C. T. (2009) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.63.3.273 · Cited by 35
“A grounded theory approach of constant comparison was used (Charmaz, 2005; Cutliff, 2000; Glaser & Strauss, 1967).”
Patients Know Best: Qualitative Study on How Families Use Patient-Controlled Personal Health Records
Schneider, H., Hill, S., & Blandford, A. (2016) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4652 · Cited by 32
“Within both cycles of data gathering and analysis, we adopted a Grounded Theory approach, as defined by Strauss and Corbin [41].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Cutcliffe, J. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cutcliffe, John R.
- Venue
- Journal of Advanced Nursing
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-06
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1476-1484
- ISSN
- 0309-2402 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2648
- OpenAlex
- W2165793557
- Cited by
- 642
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 5.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- works.bepress.com
- Locations
- Journal of Advanced Nursing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CORE Scholar (Wright State University) (submittedVersion)
- Journal of Bioresource Management (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Research Methods and Ethics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Sociology and Education Studies
- Keywords
- grounded theory, qualitative research methodology, sampling, creativity, reflexivity, tacit knowledge, methodological quality, nursing research
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Nursing, Nursing Theory, Nursing Methodology Research
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