Cited by 432SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 ResearchCOVID-19 Clinical Research StudiesAnimal Virus Infections Studies

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Plasma Neutralization of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant

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Schmidt, Fabian, Muecksch, Frauke, Weisblum, Yiska, Da Silva, Justin, Bednarski, Eva, Cho, Alice, Wang, Zijun, Gaebler, Christian, Caskey, Marina, Nussenzweig, Michel C., Hatziioannou, Theodora, Bieniasz, Paul D.·2022·New England Journal of Medicine

DOI 10.1056/nejmc2119641PMC PMC8687470

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: The Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant has spread internationally and is responsible for rapidly increasing case numbers. The emergence of divergent variants in the context of a heterogeneous and evolving neutralizing antibody response in host populations might compromise protection afforded by vaccines or prior infection. METHODS: We measured neutralizing antibody titers in 169 longitudinally collected plasma samples using pseudotypes bearing the Wuhan-hu-1 or the Omicron variant or a laboratory-designed neutralization-resistant SARS-CoV-2 spike (PMS20). Plasmas were obtained from convalescents who did or did not subsequently receive an mRNA vaccine, or naive individuals who received 3-doses of mRNA or 1-dose Ad26 vaccines. Samples were collected approximately 1, 5-6 and 12 months after initial vaccination or infection. RESULTS: Like PMS20, the Omicron spike protein was substantially resistant to neutralization compared to Wuhan-hu-1. In convalescent plasma the median deficit in neutralizing activity against PMS20 or Omicron was 30- to 60-fold. Plasmas from recipients of 2 mRNA vaccine doses were 30- to 180- fold less potent against PMS20 and Omicron than Wuhan-hu-1. Notably, previously infected or two-mRNA dose vaccinated individuals who received additional mRNA vaccine dose(s) had 38 to 154-fold and 35 to 214-fold increases in neutralizing activity against Omicron and PMS20 respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Omicron exhibits similar distribution of sequence changes and neutralization resistance as does a laboratory-designed neutralization-resistant spike protein, suggesting natural evolutionary pressure to evade the human antibody response. Currently available mRNA vaccine boosters, that may promote antibody affinity maturation, significantly ameliorate SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers.

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Figure 1. Distribution of mutations in the naturally emergent Omicron variant, and the neutralization resistant designed PMS20 spike proteins. (A) Schematic diagram of PMS20 and Omicron spike proteins with amino acid changes compared to Wuhan-1 indicated. Red outlines highlight identical changes in PMS20 and Omicron, green outlines indicate nonidentical changes affecting same residues in PMS20 and Omicron. Position of spike features is marked: NTD = N-terminal domain RBD = Receptor Binding Domain, FP = Fusion Peptide, HR = heptad repeat, TM = Transmembrane. (B) Representation of the spatial distribution of mutations on the surface of PMS20 and Omicron spike proteins. Frequency of amino acid changes relative to Wuhan-hu-1 in PMS20 or Omicron projected onto the SARS-CoV-2 spike structure (PDB 6VXX). The average frequency of substitutions in a 15 angstrom radius is represented using a color spectrum (scale 0–40) (https://biostructmap.burnet.edu.au).CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

Figure 2. Plasma neutralizing titers against Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20 and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variants in convalescent, unvaccinated individuals (A-C) NT50 values of plasmas collected at 1 month (A), 6 months (B) and 12 months (C) after SARS-CoV-2 infection against Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20 and Omicron spike pseudotyped reporter viruses. Each NT50 was determined in two independent experiments (each with two technical replicates). The median and range of the two independent determinations is plotted. Dashed line indicates the lowest plasma dilution tested (1:25).CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

Figure 3. Plasma neutralizing titers against Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20 and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variants in vaccine recipients (A, B) NT50 values of plasmas from recipients of standard 2 dose mRNA (Pfizer/BNT or Moderna) approximately one (A) and five (B) months after vaccination. (C,D) NT50 values of plasmas from recipients of single dose Ad26 (J&J) SARS-CoV-2 vaccines approximately one (C) and five (D) months after vaccination. For each panel, NT50 were determined in two independent experiments (each with two technical replicates). The median and range of the two independent determinations is plotted. Dashed line indicates the lowest plasma dilution tested (1:25)CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

Figure 4. Effect of vaccinating previously infected individuals or boosting previously vaccinated individuals on Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20 and Omicron plasma neutralizing titers. (A) NT50 values of plasmas from recipients of mRNA (Pfizer/BNT or Moderna) vaccines subsequent to infection with SARS-CoV-2. (B) NT50 values of plasmas from recipients of three doses of mRNA (Pfizer/BNT or Moderna) vaccines with the third dose (Pfizer/BNT) administered >6m after the second. For (A) and (B) each NT50 was determined in two independent experiments (each with two technical replicates). The median and range of the two independent determinations is plotted. Dashed line indicates the lowest plasma dilution tested (1:25). (C) Trajectories of NT50 values against Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20, and Omicron pseudotypes, as indicated, for convalescent individuals measured 1 month and 6 months after infection and then following subsequent vaccination (+Vac). (D) Trajectories of NT50 values against Wuhan-hu-1, PMS20, and Omicron pseudotypes, as indicated, for mRNA vaccinated individuals measured 1 month and 5 months after the second dose and 1 month after the third dose (Boost).CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

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Effectiveness of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant infection, symptomatic disease, and hospitalization: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Meggiolaro, A., Sane Schepisi, M., Farina, S., Castagna, C., Mammone, A., Siddu, A., Stefanelli, P., Boccia, S., & Rezza, G. (2022) · Expert Review of Vaccines · doi:10.1080/14760584.2022.2130773 · Cited by 17
Reduced Antibodies and Innate Cytokine Changes in SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 mRNA Vaccinated Transplant Patients With Hematological Malignancies
Bergamaschi, C., Pagoni, M. N., Rosati, M., Angel, M., Tzannou, I., Vlachou, M., Darmani, I., Ullah, A., Bear, J., Devasundaram, S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.899972 · Cited by 17
Immune Response after 2 Doses of BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccinations in Children and Adolescents with Cancer and Hematologic Diseases
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“…studies, the seroprotective level after 2 doses of BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine against the most recent variant of concern, Omicron strain, seem to be lower than against wild type and delta strain, which is insufficient to protect against omicron stain (Schmidt et al., 2021; Muik et al., 2022).”
Background
Systematic review of primary and booster COVID-19 sera neutralizing ability against SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant
Sitaras, I., Jacobsen, H., Higdon, M. M., Dowling, W. E., Bar-Zeev, N., & Deloria Knoll, M. (2022) · npj Vaccines · doi:10.1038/s41541-022-00565-y · Cited by 17
COVID-19 Adenoviral Vector Vaccination Elicits a Robust Memory B Cell Response with the Capacity to Recognize Omicron BA.2 and BA.5 Variants
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Antibody Binding and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Binding Inhibition Is Significantly Reduced for Both the BA.1 and BA.2 Omicron Variants
Junker, D., Becker, M., Wagner, T. R., Kaiser, P. D., Maier, S. M., Grimm, T. M., Griesbaum, J., Marsall, P., Gruber, J., Traenkle, B., et al. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac498 · Cited by 17
“Among those who had received 2 doses, binding responses were consistent with other reports (eg, [16]) in identifying a significant decrease for those who received homologous 2-dose vector vaccination as opposed to homologous mRNA vaccination or heterologous vaccination.”
Result
Characterization of Entry Pathways, Species-Specific Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Residues Determining Entry, and Antibody Neutralization Evasion of Omicron BA.1, BA.1.1, BA.2, and BA.3 Variants
Neerukonda, S. N., Wang, R., Vassell, R. A., Baha, H., Lusvarghi, S., Liu, S., Wang, T. T., Weiss, C. D., & Wang, W. (2022) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01140-22 · Cited by 16
Reduced B cell antigenicity of Omicron lowers host serologic response
Tubiana, J., Xiang, Y., Fan, L., Wolfson, H. J., Chen, K., Schneidman‐Duhovny, D., & Shi, Y. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111512 · Cited by 18
“These mutations collectively facilitate the immune evasion of both vaccinated and convalescent serawhile maintaining angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) binding (Collie et al., 2021; Edara et al., 2022; Hoffmann et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Rossler et al., 2022b; Schmidt et al., 2022; Servellita et al., 2022).”
Influential
Functional Antibody Responses to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Variants in Children With Coronavirus Disease 2019, Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children, and After Two Doses of BNT162b2 Vaccination
Rostad, C. A., Chen, X., Sun, H. Y., Hussaini, L., Lu, A., Perez, M. A., Hsiao, H., Anderson, L. J., & Anderson, E. J. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac215 · Cited by 16
“horts of infected and vaccinated adults [6, 7], little is known about the vaccine-induced antibody responses to variants including Omicron in children.”
Background
Skin-patch delivered subunit vaccine induces broadly neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
McMillan, C. L. D., Amarilla, A. A., Modhiran, N., Choo, J. J. Y., Azuar, A., Honeyman, K. E., Khromykh, A. A., Young, P. R., Watterson, D., & Muller, D. A. (2022) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.07.013 · Cited by 16
Non-Omicron breakthrough infection with higher viral load and longer vaccination-infection interval improves SARS-CoV-2 BA.4/5 neutralization
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A randomized phase I/II safety and immunogenicity study of the Montanide-adjuvanted SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-RBD-Fc vaccine, AKS-452
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“Yester F. Janssen: Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing.”
BackgroundInfluential
Analysis of anti-Omicron neutralizing antibody titers in different vaccinated and unvaccinated convalescent plasma sourcesPreprint
Sullivan, D. J., Franchini, M., Joyner, M. J., Casadevall, A., & Focosi, D. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.12.24.21268317 · Cited by 16
At Least Three Doses of Leading Vaccines Essential for Neutralisation of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant
Singanallur, N. B., van Vuren, P. J., McAuley, A. J., Bruce, M. P., Kuiper, M. J., Gwini, S. M., Riddell, S., Goldie, S., Drew, T. W., Blasdell, K. R., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.883612 · Cited by 15
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BackgroundResult
Safety and immunogenicity of a prefusion non-stabilized spike protein mRNA COVID-19 vaccine: a phase I trial
Gatechompol, S., Kittanamongkolchai, W., Ketloy, C., Prompetchara, E., Thitithanyanont, A., Jongkaewwattana, A., Buranapraditkun, S., Alameh, M.-G., Ubolyam, S., Sophonphan, J., et al. (2022) · Nature Microbiology · doi:10.1038/s41564-022-01271-0 · Cited by 15
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Liu, J., Mao, Q., Wu, X., He, Q., Bian, L., Bai, Y., Wang, Z., Wang, Q., Zhang, J., Liang, Z., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.814365 · Cited by 15
“BNT162b2 Israel 119,236 ≥16 92 (88- 95) 87 (55-100) 92 (75- 100) –”
Self-citation
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Lineage BA.2 dominated the Omicron SARS-CoV-2 epidemic wave in the Philippines
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Farcet, M. R., Karbiener, M., Knotzer, S., Schwaiger, J., & Kreil, T. R. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac358 · Cited by 15
Druggable targets and therapeutic development for COVID-19
Duan, X., Lacko, L. A., & Chen, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Chemistry · doi:10.3389/fchem.2022.963701 · Cited by 15
“1 variant has shown substantial escape from neutralizing antibodies induced by vaccination (Cele et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Schmidt et al., 2022).”
Background
Low Spike Antibody Levels and Impaired BA.4/5 Neutralization in Patients with Multiple Myeloma or Waldenstrom’s Macroglobulinemia after BNT162b2 Booster Vaccination
Rosati, M., Terpos, E., Bear, J., Burns, R. T., Devasundaram, S., Ntanasis‐Stathopoulos, I., Gavriatopoulou, M., Kastritis, E., Dimopoulos, M. A., Pavlakis, G. N., et al. (2022) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers14235816 · Cited by 16
“Because we and others have also reported excellent correlation between the pseudotype NAb assay and live-virus neutralization [17,26,38], these data predict also lack of live-virus neutralization of the BA.”
Result
Omicron BA.4/5 Neutralization and T-Cell Responses in Organ Transplant Recipients After Booster Messenger RNA Vaccine: A Multicenter Cohort Study
Ferreira, V. H., Ierullo, M., Mavandadnejad, F., Kurtesi, A., Hu, Q., Hardy, W. R., Hall, V. G., Pinzon, N., Yotis, D. M., Gingras, A., et al. (2023) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciad175 · Cited by 14
Great Expectations of COVID-19 Herd Immunity
Giurgea, L. T., & Morens, D. M. (2022) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.03495-21 · Cited by 15
“tions with high levels of vaccine- and natural infection-induced immunity (28).”
Background
Differences between Omicron SARS-CoV-2 RBD and other variants in their ability to interact with cell receptors and monoclonal antibodies
Giron, C. C., Laaksonen, A., & da Silva, F. L. B. (2022) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2022.2095305 · Cited by 18
“neutralization of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant using blood from patients previously infected with other variants (Schmidt et al., 2021).”
Method
Humoral immunity for durable control of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants
Kotaki, R., Moriyama, S., & Takahashi, Y. (2023) · Inflammation and Regeneration · doi:10.1186/s41232-023-00255-9 · Cited by 15
Determinants of antibody response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 mRNA vaccines in people with HIV
Chammartin, F., Kusejko, K., Pasin, C., Trkola, A., Briel, M., Amico, P., Stoeckle, M. P., Eichenberger, A. L., Hasse, B. K., Braun, D. L., et al. (2022) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000003246 · Cited by 14
Clinical and genomic signatures of SARS-CoV-2 Delta breakthrough infections in New York
Duerr, R., Dimartino, D., Marier, C., Zappile, P., Levine, S., François, F., Iturrate, E., Wang, G., Dittmann, M., Lighter, J., et al. (2022) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104141 · Cited by 14
“4 (cid:1) 6,37 Thus, both Omicron and Delta breakthrough viruses were presumably selected against immune selection pressure, which prompted us to perform a comparative analysis of their full-genome mutational landscapes including regions with high (hotspots) or low (cold-spots) evolutionary…”
A Recent SARS-CoV-2 Infection Enhances Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity against Several Omicron Subvariants following a Fourth mRNA Vaccine Dose
Beaudoin-Bussières, G., Tauzin, A., Dionne, K., Gendron‐Lepage, G., Medjahed, H., Perreault, J., Levade, I., Alfadhli, L., Bo, Y., Bazin, R., et al. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15061274 · Cited by 15
Non-neutralizing antibodies: Deleterious or propitious during SARS-CoV-2 infection?
Zanella, I., Antoni, M. D., Marchese, V., Castelli, F., & Quirós-Roldán, E. (2022) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108943 · Cited by 16
“4 the Omicron variant in comparison to the wild-type SARS-CoV-2 [54,55].”
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Bednarski, E., Estrada, P. M. D. R., DaSilva, J., Boukadida, C., Zhang, F., Luna-Villalobos, Y. A., Rodríguez-Rangel, X., Pitén-Isidro, E., Luna-García, E., Díaz-Rivera, D., et al. (2022) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.00840-22 · Cited by 15
“We and others have previously reported that mRNA vaccination of individuals who were previously infected can generate neutralizing activity against distantly related sarbecoviruses such as SARS-CoV (6, 18, 26, 27).”
Self-citation
The spread of the omicron variant: Identification of knowledge gaps, virus diffusion modelling, and future research needs
Anand, U., Pal, T., Zanoletti, A., Sundaramurthy, S., Varjani, S., Rajapaksha, A. U., Barceló, ‪., & Bontempi, E. (2023) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.115612 · Cited by 15
“S, and Sputnik V did not successfully produce neutralizing activity against the Omicron variant (Cameroni et al., 2022; Garcia-Beltran et al., 2022; Rössler et al., 2022; Schmidt et al., 2022).”
Antibody efficacy of inactivated vaccine boosters (CoronaVac) against Omicron variant from a 15-month follow-up study
Yin, Y., Li, X., Qian, C., Cheng, B., Lu, F., & Shen, T. (2022) · Journal of Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2022.06.018 · Cited by 14
Germinal center–mediated broadening of B cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 booster immunization
Malladi, S. K., Jaiswal, D., Ying, B., Alsoussi, W. B., Darling, T. L., Dadonaite, B., Civljak, A., Horvath, S. C., Zhou, J. Q., Kim, W., et al. (2025) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.adu4107 · Cited by 15
Steep Decline in Binding Capability of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant (B.1.1.529) RBD to the Antibodies in Early COVID-19 Convalescent Sera and Inactivated Vaccine Sera
Zhou, W., He, P., Li, J., Liu, H., Shi, M., Yu, J., & Wei, H. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14020335 · Cited by 13
Antibody durability at 1 year after Sputnik V vaccination
Sanchez, L., Rouco, S. O., Pifano, M., Ojeda, D. S., Pascuale, C. A., Mazzitelli, B., García, F. D. D., Ledesma, M. M. G. L., Rodriguez, P. E., Miglietta, E. A., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(22)00176-1 · Cited by 14
Pre-Omicron Vaccine Breakthrough Infection Induces Superior Cross-Neutralization against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1 Compared to Infection Alone
da Silva, E. S., Kohnen, M., Gilson, G., Staub, T., Arendt, V., Hilger, C., Servais, J.-Y., Charpentier, É., Domingues, O., Snoeck, C. J., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23147675 · Cited by 12
Humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 Spike variants after mRNA vaccination in solid organ transplant recipients
Tauzin, A., Beaudoin-Bussières, G., Gong, S. Y., Chatterjee, D., Gendron‐Lepage, G., Bourassa, C., Goyette, G., Racine, N., Khrifi, Z., Turgeon, J., et al. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104990 · Cited by 13
Global estimates of the fitness advantage of SARS-CoV-2 variant Omicron
van Dorp, C. H., Goldberg, E. E., Ke, R., Hengartner, N., & Romero-Severson, E. O. (2022) · Virus Evolution · doi:10.1093/ve/veac089 · Cited by 13
Cross neutralization of SARS‐CoV‐2 omicron subvariants after repeated doses of COVID‐19 mRNA vaccines
Luczkowiak, J., Rivas, G. A., Labiod, N., Lasala, F., Rolo, M., Lora‐Tamayo, J., Mancheño‐Losa, M., Rial‐Crestelo, D., Pérez‐Rivilla, A., Folgueira, M. D., et al. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28268 · Cited by 15
“The emergence of the different SARS‐COV‐2 variants of concern (VoC) have represented an important challenge to achieve high levels of protection for COVID‐19(1) especially after the rapid spread of the Omicron VoC which combines an unprecedented number of mutations in its sequence clearly related with an increased tra…”
Background
Memory B cell differentiation from germinal centers
Inoue, T. (2023) · International Immunology · doi:10.1093/intimm/dxad017 · Cited by 13
Differential escape of neutralizing antibodies by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and pre-emergent sarbecovirusesPreprint
Wang, L., Tan, C. W., Chia, W. N., Zhu, F., Young, B. E., Chantasrisawad, N., Hwa, S.-H., Yeoh, A. Y.-Y., Lim, B. L., Yap, W. C., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1362541/v1 · Cited by 14
Delineating antibody escape from Omicron sublineagesPreprint
Gruell, H., Vanshylla, K., Korenkov, M., Tober‐Lau, P., Zehner, M., Münn, F., Janicki, H., Augustin, M., Schommers, P., Sander, L. E., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.04.06.487257 · Cited by 13
SARS-CoV-2 vaccination elicits broad and potent antibody effector functions to variants of concern in vulnerable populations
Hederman, A. P., Natarajan, H., Heyndríckx, L., Ariën, K. K., Wiener, J. A., Wright, P. F., Bloch, E. M., Tobian, A. A. R., Redd, A. D., Blankson, J. N., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-40960-0 · Cited by 19
“The emergence of the Omicronvariant, with farmoremutationsthan otherVOC, including in other regions of the spike protein, has led to reductions in neutralization potency against this variant 8,40,41 .”
Variant-specific antibody response following repeated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and infection
Jiang, X., Song, X., Shi, C., Yang, G., Wang, X., Zhang, Y.-W., Wu, J., Zhao, L., Zhang, M., Wang, M., et al. (2024) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114387 · Cited by 13
Robust and persistent B-cell responses following SARS-CoV-2 vaccine determine protection from SARS-CoV-2 infection
Byrne, J., Gu, L., Leon, A. A. G., Gaillard, C. M., Saini, G., Alalwan, D., Tomás‐Cortázar, J., Kenny, G., Donohue, S., Reynolds, B., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1445653 · Cited by 12
“Studies have demonstrated that the third dose of WT virus mRNA signi ﬁ cantly enhances the production of neutralising antibodies against highly mutated strains such as OM (32, 33).”
Background
Generation of neutralizing antibodies against Omicron, Gamma and Delta SARS-CoV-2 variants following CoronaVac vaccination
da Silva, A. R., Villas-Boas, L. S., Tozetto-Mendoza, T. R., Honorato, L., de Paula, A., Witkin, S. S., & Mendes-Correa, M. C. (2022) · Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo · doi:10.1590/s1678-9946202264019 · Cited by 12
Cross-Variant Neutralizing Serum Activity after SARS-CoV-2 Breakthrough Infections
Tober‐Lau, P., Gruell, H., Vanshylla, K., Koch, W., Hillus, D., Schommers, P., Suárez, I., Suttorp, N., Sander, L. E., Klein, F., et al. (2022) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid2805.220271 · Cited by 12
Limited Cross-Variant Immune Response From SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2 in Naïve But Not Previously Infected Outpatients
Lee, H., Knabl, L., Walter, M. F., Furth, P. A., & Hennighausen, L. G. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.105369 · Cited by 12
“The highly transmissible SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant has replaced previous variants and is less susceptible to neutralizing antibodies elicited by vaccination or infection (Cele et al., 2022; Edara et al., 2022; Schmidt et al., 2022).”
Influential
Bioinformatic Analysis of B- and T-cell Epitopes from SARS-CoV-2 Structural Proteins and their Potential Cross-reactivity with Emerging Variants and other Human Coronaviruses
Pacheco-Olvera, D. L., Remy-Hernández, S. S., García-Valeriano, M. G., Rivera-Hernández, T., & López-Macías, C. I. R. (2022) · Archives of Medical Research · doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2022.10.007 · Cited by 12
Characterization of Systemic and Mucosal Humoral Immune Responses to an Adjuvanted Intranasal SARS-CoV-2 Protein Subunit Vaccine Candidate in Mice
Maltseva, M., Galipeau, Y., Renner, T. M., Deschatelets, L., Durocher, Y., Akache, B., & Langlois, M. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11010030 · Cited by 14
Ad26.COV2.S priming provided a solid immunological base for mRNA-based COVID-19 booster vaccination
Geers, D., Sablerolles, R. S. G., van Baarle, D., Kootstra, N. A., Rietdijk, W. J. R., Schmitz, K. S., Gommers, L., Bogers, S., Nieuwkoop, N. J., van Dijk, L. L. A., et al. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.105753 · Cited by 12
“Both variants have shown significant escape from neutralizing antibodies.(17,20,56,57) Currently, other Omicron variants are rapidly establishing dominance in different geographical locations, and escape has been demonstrated for the newer Omicron variants.”
Humoral Responses in the Omicron Era Following 3-Dose SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Series in Kidney Transplant Recipients
McEvoy, C. M., Hu, Q., Abe, K. T., Yau, K., Oliver, M. J., Levin, A., Gingras, A., Hladunewich, M., & Yuen, D. A. (2022) · Transplantation Direct · doi:10.1097/txd.0000000000001401 · Cited by 12
Vaccine-induced T cell responses correlate with reduced risk of severe COVID-19 in a placebo-controlled efficacy trial
Hertoghs, N., Roels, S., Brückner, M., SADOFF, J. C., Banbury, B. L., Akers, N. K., Howie, B., Robins, H. S., Roey, G. A. V., Tolboom, J. T. B. M., et al. (2025) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105809 · Cited by 15
Booster BNT162b2 COVID-19 Vaccination Increases Neutralizing Antibody Titers Against the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant in Both Young and Elderly Adults
Um, J., Choi, Y. Y., Kim, G., Kim, M.-K., Lee, K., Sung, H. K., Kim, B. C., Lee, Y.-K., Jang, H., Bang, J. H., et al. (2022) · Journal of Korean Medical Science · doi:10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e70 · Cited by 11
Type of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine and immunomodulatory treatment influence humoral immunogenicity in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases
Raptis, C., Berger, C. T., Ciurea, A., Andrey, D. O., Polysopoulos, C., Lescuyer, P., Maletic, T., Riek, M., Scherer, A., von Loga, I., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1016927 · Cited by 12
Plasma and memory antibody responses to Gamma SARS-CoV-2 provide limited cross-protection to other variants
Agudelo, M., Muecksch, F., Schaefer-Babajew, D. J., Cho, A., DaSilva, J., Bednarski, E., Ramos, V., Oliveira, T. Y., Cipolla, M., Gazumyan, A., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20220367 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Towards novel nano-based vaccine platforms for SARS-CoV-2 and its variants of concern: Advances, challenges and limitations
Helmy, S. A., Morsi, R. M. E., El-Masry, S. M., & El-Masry, S. M. (2022) · Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103762 · Cited by 12
Vaccination against Borna Disease: Overview, Vaccine Virus Characterization and Investigation of Live and Inactivated Vaccines
Dürrwald, R., Kolodziejek, J., Oh, D., Herzog, S., Liebermann, H., Osterrieder, N., & Nowotny, N. R. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14122706 · Cited by 10
Early protective effect of a (“pan”) coronavirus vaccine (PanCoVac) in Roborovski dwarf hamsters after single-low dose intranasal administration
Abdelaziz, M. O., Raftery, M. J., Weihs, J., Bielawski, O., Edel, R., Köppke, J. K. C., Vladimirova, D., Adler, J. M., Firsching, T. C., Voß, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1166765 · Cited by 10
Heterologous immunity induced by 1st generation COVID-19 vaccines and its role in developing a pan-coronavirus vaccine
Patel, R. S., & Agrawal, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.952229 · Cited by 10
Detection of the Omicron SARS-CoV-2 Lineage and Its BA.1 Variant with Multiplex RT-qPCR
Yolshin, N. D., Komissarov, A. B., Вадимович, В. К., Даировна, М. Т., Fadeev, A. V., & Lioznov, D. A. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232416153 · Cited by 10
“Thus, the Omicron variant poses an increased risk of reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 as compared to other VOCs because it is able to resist neutralization by antibodies [6,7] or sera from vaccinated people [8].”
Background
Viral N protein hijacks deaminase-containing RNA granules to enhance SARS-CoV-2 mutagenesis
Li, Z., Luo, L., Ju, X., Huang, S., Lei, L., Yu, Y., Liu, J., Zhang, P., Chi, T., Ma, P., et al. (2024) · The EMBO Journal · doi:10.1038/s44318-024-00314-y · Cited by 8
Effect of heterologous intranasal iNCOVACC® vaccination as a booster to two-dose intramuscular Covid-19 vaccination series: a randomized phase 3 clinical trial
Akula, V. R., Bhate, A. S., Gillurkar, C. S., Kushwaha, J. S., Singh, A. P., Singh, C., Pandey, A. K., K, S. K., Rai, S. K., Vadrevu, K. M., et al. (2025) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-025-00818-6 · Cited by 11
Highly Thermotolerant SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Elicits Neutralising Antibodies against Delta and Omicron in Mice
(2022) · doi:10.3390/v14040800 · Cited by 9
“from vaccinated and/or infected patients [21,22], further highlights the need for a reg 433”
Background
Passive immunization against COVID-19 by anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike IgG in commercially available immunoglobulin preparations in severe antibody deficiency
Hirsiger, J. R., Weigang, S., Walz, A., Fuchs, J., Daly, M.-L., Eggimann, S., Hausmann, O. V., Schwemmle, M., Kochs, G., Panning, M., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology In Practice · doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2022.06.020 · Cited by 9
Strategies and safety considerations of booster vaccination in COVID-19
Meng, H., Mao, J., & Ye, Q. (2022) · Biomolecules and Biomedicine · doi:10.17305/bjbms.2021.7082 · Cited by 12
What, Where, When and How of COVID-19 Patents Landscape: A Bibliometrics Review
Liu, K., Zhang, X., Hu, Y., Chen, W., Kong, X., Yao, P., Cong, J., Zuo, H., Wang, J., Li, X., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.925369 · Cited by 10
“Omicron is four times more infectious than the Alpha strain and twice as infectious as the Delta strain (36).”
Background
Structural Analysis of Spike Proteins from SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern Highlighting Their Functional Alterations
Solanki, K., Rajpoot, S., Kumar, A., Zhang, K. Y. J., Ohishi, T., Hirani, N., Wadhonkar, K., Patidar, P., Pan, Q., & Baig, M. S. (2022) · Future Virology · doi:10.2217/fvl-2022-0003 · Cited by 9
Enhancement of Humoral and Cellular Immunity Against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 by a Third Dose of BNT162b2 Vaccine in Japanese Healthcare Workers
Miyakawa, K., Kato, H., Ohtake, N., Jeremiah, S. S., & Ryo, A. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac344 · Cited by 9
Divergent Antibody Repertoires Found for Omicron versus Wuhan SARS-CoV-2 Strains Using Ig-MS
Forte, E., Soye, B. J. D., Melani, R. D., Hollas, M. A. R., Kafader, J. O., Sha, B. E., Schneider, J. R., & Kelleher, N. L. (2022) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/acs.jproteome.2c00514 · Cited by 8
Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 VOC Neutralization and Novel mAb Reveal Protection against Omicron
Hao, L., Hsiang, T.-Y., Dalmat, R. R., Ireton, R. C., Morton, J. F., Stokes, C., Netland, J., Hale, M. R., Thouvenel, C., Wald, A., et al. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15020530 · Cited by 8
Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1 Spike Mutations on T-Cell Epitopes in Mice
Wang, Y., Wang, B., Zhao, Z., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., Song, X., Zheng, W., Hou, L., et al. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15030763 · Cited by 8
A Large-Scale Dataset of Twitter Chatter about Online Learning during the Current COVID-19 Omicron WavePreprint
Thakur, N. (2022) · doi:10.36227/techrxiv.20363742 · Cited by 9
The immune memory of innate immune systems
Kato, Y., & Kumanogoh, A. (2024) · International Immunology · doi:10.1093/intimm/dxae067 · Cited by 10
Humoral responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in vasculitis-related immune suppression
Kamelian, K., Sievers, B. L., Chen-Xu, M., Turner, S., Cheng, M. T. K., Altaf, M., Kemp, S. A., Abdullahi, A., Csiba, K., Collier, D. A., et al. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adq3342 · Cited by 8
“These results echo previous findings using similar approaches ( 26 , 27 ), suggesting that boosters, including homologous WT vaccines, can promote B cell differentiation and affinity maturation in individuals with previous vaccinations ( 28 – 30 ).”
Longitudinal Tracking of Immune Responses in COVID-19 Convalescents Reveals Absence of Neutralization Activity Against Omicron and Staggered Impairment to Other SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern
Odak, I., Schultze-Florey, C. R., Hammerschmidt, S. I., Ritter, C., Willenzon, S., Friedrichsen, M., Ravens, I., Sikora, R., Bayir, L. M., Jauregui, R. G., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.863039 · Cited by 8
“org 8 publications indicating that COVID-19 convalescent individuals possess little if any serum antibodies able for neutralizing the Omicron variant (24, 26) It seems likely that the B cell-mediated protection of infection is severely affected due to the high mutational load in the RBD domain of Omicron (9).”
BackgroundResult
Understanding COVID-19 Vaccines Today: Are T-cells Key Players?
Shafqat, A., Arabi, T. Z., Sabbah, B. N., Abdulkader, H. S., Shafqat, S., Razak, A., Kashir, J., AlKattan, K. M., & Yaqinuddin, A. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10060904 · Cited by 8
“529) Majority of samples did not reveal neutralizing activity [27] 74% (57–84) [41]”
Background
Understanding the challenges to COVID-19 vaccines and treatment options, herd immunity and probability of reinfection
Al-Hatamleh, M. A. I., Abusalah, M. A. H., Hatmal, M. M., Alshaer, W., Ahmad, S., Mohd-Zahid, M. H., Rahman, E. N. S. E. A., Yean, C. Y., Alias, I. Z., Uskoković, V., et al. (2022) · Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2022.11.007 · Cited by 8
“261 The Omicron variant of the coronavirus, which is spreading more quickly than previous variants, is unlikely to help countries achieve herd immunity against COVID-19, wherein individuals would become immune to the virus with decreased spreading rates.”
Treating SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant infection by molnupiravir for pandemic mitigation and living with the virus: a mathematical modeling study
Zheng, Q., Bao, C., Ji, Y., Li, P., Ma, Z., Wang, X., Meng, Q., & Pan, Q. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-32619-z · Cited by 8
The SARS-CoV-2 Variant Omicron Is Able to Escape Vaccine-Induced Humoral Immune Responses, but Is Counteracted by Booster Vaccination
Hastert, F. D., Hein, S., von Rhein, C., Benz, N. I., Husria, Y., Oberle, D., Maier, T. J., Hildt, E., & Schnierle, B. S. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10050794 · Cited by 10
“The analysis of humoral immune responses presented here suggests that the emergence of Omicron is due to immune selective pressure in the hosts [28].”
Background
Comparison of Waning Neutralizing Antibody Responses Against the Omicron Variant 6 Months After Natural Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection (With or Without Subsequent Coronavirus Disease 2019 [COVID-19] Vaccination) Versus 2-Dose COVID-19 Vaccination
Lim, S. Y., Park, S., Kim, J. Y., Kim, S., Jee, Y., & Kim, S. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac435 · Cited by 9
“Previous studies have shown that 2 doses of mRNA-based vaccines elicit poor neutralizing 93 antibody responses against the Omicron variant, while 3 doses of mRNA-based vaccines 94 elicit potent responses against the Omicron variant [2-3].”
Background
Deep learning-based rapid generation of broadly reactive antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and its Omicron variant
Lou, H., Zheng, J.-Q., Fang, X., Liang, Z., Zhang, M. L., Chen, Y. Z., Wang, C., & Cao, X. (2022) · Cell Research · doi:10.1038/s41422-022-00727-6 · Cited by 9
Understanding risk factors of a new variant outburst through global analysis of Omicron transmissibility
Djordjević, M., Marković, S. S., Salom, I., & Djordjevic, M. (2022) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.114446 · Cited by 8
Omicron SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern: A Review on its Transmissibility, Immune Evasion, Reinfection, and SeverityPreprint
Mohsin, M., & Mahmud, S. A. S. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1316171/v1 · Cited by 8
A Role for Nucleocapsid-Specific Antibody Function in COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma TherapyPreprint
Herman, J. D., Wang, C., Burke, J. S., Zur, Y., Compere, H., Kang, J., Macvicar, R., Shin, S. A., Frank, I., Siegel, D. L., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.02.19.22271230 · Cited by 8
Reduced antigenicity of Omicron lowers host serologic responsePreprint
Tubiana, J., Xiang, Y., Fan, L., Wolfson, H. J., Chen, K., Schneidman‐Duhovny, D., & Shi, Y. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.02.15.480546 · Cited by 8
SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination elicits broad and potent Fc effector functions to VOCs in vulnerable populationsPreprint
Hederman, A. P., Natarajan, H., Wiener, J. A., Wright, P. F., Bloch, E. M., Tobian, A. A. R., Redd, A. D., Blankson, J. N., Rottenstreich, A., Zarbiv, G., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.09.15.22280000 · Cited by 8
Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 infection elicits cross-protective immunity in people who received boosters or infected with variant strains
Chowdhury, S., Chowdhury, N. S., Chowdhury, N. S., Chowdhury, S., & Chowdhury, S. (2022) · International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1177/03946320221133001 · Cited by 8
“The effectiveness of neutralizing antibodies generated by vaccines, previous infections, and monoclonal antibody therapy is decreased by the mutations in the Omicron variant.(5) After one or two doses of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine, neutralizing antibodies against the Omicron variant stay low and o…”
Background
Serum anti-nucleocapsid antibody correlates of protection from SARS-CoV-2 re-infection regardless of symptoms or immune history
Miyamoto, S., Numakura, K., Kinoshita, R., Arashiro, T., Takahashi, H., Hibino, H., Hayakawa, M., Kanno, T., Sataka, A., Sakamoto, R., et al. (2025) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-025-00894-8 · Cited by 6
Longitudinal analysis of anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers in vaccinees using a novel giant magnetoresistive (GMR) assay
Ng, E., Choi, C., & Wang, S. X. (2023) · Sensors and Actuators B Chemical · doi:10.1016/j.snb.2023.133773 · Cited by 7
“Mutations to the spike protein associated with Omicron result in greater antigenic escape from antibodies compared to previous variants [32,33].”
Anti-Spike Antibody Response to Natural Infection with SARS-CoV-2 and Its Activity against Emerging Variants
Chen, C., Huang, K.-Y. A., Shih, S., Lin, Y., Cheng, C., Huang, Y., Lin, T., & Cheng, S. (2022) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.00743-22 · Cited by 7
The Burden of Omicron Variant in Pakistan: An Updated Review
Khan, S., Khan, S., Haider, F., Malik, J., Khan, F., Khan, I., Ullah, I., Zia, M. A., & Kousar, S. (2022) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid2100105 · Cited by 7
“Scientists expect that vaccines will be less effective against the variant [11].”
Background
A bias of Asparagine to Lysine mutations in SARS-CoV-2 outside the receptor binding domain affects protein flexibility
Boer, J. C., Pan, Q., Holien, J. K., Nguyen, T., Ascher, D. B., & Plebanski, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.954435 · Cited by 7
“For instance, through the use of an artificially constructed neutralization resistant virus expressing the Omicron Spike protein variant, authors showed that Omicron and the neutralization resistant Spike construct, were both 30-180 fold more resistant to neuralization by convalescent plasma, compared to the original…”
Result
SARS-CoV-2 epidemiology, antibody dynamics, and neutralisation capacity in Irish healthcare workers in the era of booster COVID-19 vaccinations
McGrath, J., Kenny, C., Nielsen, C. S., Domegan, L. M., Walsh, C., Rooney, P., Walsh, S., Conlon, N. P., Brady, G., Ibrahim, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1078022 · Cited by 7
“Booster vaccine dosing with mRNA vaccines mitigates this antibody reduction with significant increases in titres demonstrated in both previously infected individuals and those in receipt of vaccination alone (44, 46).”
Background
Exploratory analysis of SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant and its subvariant propagation: global predominance of BA.1*, BA.2*, BA.5*, BE.1*, and BQ.1*
Muthusami, R., & Saritha, K. (2023) · Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy · doi:10.1007/s43538-023-00176-8 · Cited by 7
Comparison of Four T-cell Assays and Two Binding Antibody Assays in SARS-CoV-2 Vaccinees With or Without Omicron Breakthrough Infection
Seo, Y. J., Oh, I., Nam, M., Shin, S., Roh, E. Y., & Song, E. Y. (2023) · Annals of Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.3343/alm.2023.43.6.596 · Cited by 8
“This is in agreement with previous findings of strong hybrid immunity after BI [3, 15, 29].”
Protective Efficacy of Novel Engineered Human ACE2-Fc Fusion Protein Against Pan-SARS-CoV-2 Infection In Vitro and in Vivo
Yu, B., Drelich, A. K., Hsu, J. C., Tat, V., Peng, B., Wei, Q., Wang, J., Wang, H., Wages, J. M., Mendelsohn, A. R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01201 · Cited by 6
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Neutralization After Messenger RNA Vaccination and Variant Breakthrough Infection
Gaebler, C., DaSilva, J., Bednarski, E., Muecksch, F., Schmidt, F., Weisblum, Y., Millard, K. G., Turroja, M., Cho, A., Wang, Z., et al. (2022) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofac227 · Cited by 7
“Uninfected vaccine recipient participants have been previously described [3] (Supplementary Table 1).”
Self-citation
Design of immunogens for eliciting antibody responses that may protect against SARS-CoV-2 variants
Wang, E. J. D., & Chakraborty, A. K. (2022) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010563 · Cited by 7
“Indeed, available data on the Omicron variant suggest that this is true [8,9].”
Background

Authors: Schmidt, F., Muecksch, F., Weisblum, Y., Da Silva, J., Bednarski, E., Cho, A., Wang, Z., Gaebler, C., Caskey, M., Nussenzweig, M. C., Hatziioannou, T., & Bieniasz, P. D.
Affiliations: Rockefeller University (US)
Rockefeller University, New York, NY
Corresponding author: Bieniasz, Paul D.
ORCID: Weisblum, Yiska
Bednarski, Eva
Gaebler, Christian
Nussenzweig, Michel C.
Bieniasz, Paul D.
Venue: New England Journal of Medicine
Publisher: Massachusetts Medical Society
Published: 2022-02-10
Volume: 386
Issue: 6
Pages: 599-601
ISSN: 0028-4793 (ISSN-L)
1533-4406
DOI: 10.1056/nejmc2119641
PMC: PMC8687470
OpenAlex: W4205145778
Cited by: 432
References: 22
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 307
FWCI: 32.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.nejmgroup.org/legal/terms-of-use.htm (vor)
Locations: New England Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
medRxiv (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders: Howard Hughes Medical Institute
National Institutes of Health (2U19AI111825, P01-AI138398-S1, R01AI501111, R01AI78788, R37AI64003)
National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (UL1 TR001866)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
Keywords: Omicron variant, neutralizing antibodies, plasma neutralization, spike protein mutations, receptor binding domain, N-terminal domain, antibody escape, Wuhan-Hu-1, COVID-19 recovery, mRNA vaccines, neutralization titers

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Plasma Neutralization of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant

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