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Allostatic load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging
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Allostatic load (AL) has been proposed as a new conceptualization of cumulative biological burden exacted on the body through attempts to adapt to life's demands. Using a multisystem summary measure of AL, we evaluated its capacity to predict four categories of health outcomes, 7 years after a baseline survey of 1,189 men and women age 70–79. Higher baseline AL scores were associated with significantly increased risk for 7-year mortality as well as declines in cognitive and physical functioning and were marginally associated with incident cardiovascular disease events, independent of standard socio-demographic characteristics and baseline health status. The summary AL measure was based on 10 parameters of biological functioning, four of which are primary mediators in the cascade from perceived challenges to downstream health outcomes. Six of the components are secondary mediators reflecting primarily components of the metabolic syndrome (syndrome X). AL was a better predictor of mortality and decline in physical functioning than either the syndrome X or primary mediator components alone. The findings support the concept of AL as a measure of cumulative biological burden.
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“Fortunately, although diagnosable disease does not occur until later in life, there are several reliable indices of early damage to regulatory systems, allostatic load (Hwang et al., 2014; Robertson et al., 2017; Seeman et al., 2001), and cellular aging such as inflammation, telomere length, and epigenetic clock (Chen et al., 2016; Codd et al., 2013; Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration et al., 201”
From More than a feeling: A unified view of stress measurement for population science (2018) · cites this paper as Seeman et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“There is also wealth of evidence establishing direct pathways between the SNS and physical health (Danese and McEwen, 2012; McLaughlin et al., 2014a; Seeman et al., 2001).”
From Developmental psychoneuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune pathways from childhood adversity to disease (2017) · cites this paper as Seeman et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the effects were found to result from the contributions of multiple regulatory systems represented in the index, 164”
From Socio‐economic differentials in peripheral biology: Cumulative allostatic load (2010) · cites this paper as [164]
In the citing paper
“These associations were found both with respect to an initial 2.5 year follow-up period 176 as well as a longer 7-year period, 164”
From Socio‐economic differentials in peripheral biology: Cumulative allostatic load (2010) · cites this paper as [164]
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“Typically, AL is assessed as a composite score of 10 peripheral biomarkers including urinary cortisol, inflammatory cytokines, serum cholesterol, hemoglobin levels and blood pressure.(23) These indicators were shown to reliably account for subjective chronic stress levels.”
BackgroundYashin, A. I., Arbeev, K. G., Kulminski, A. M., Borecki, I. B., Christensen, K., Barmada, M. M., Hadley, E., Rossi, W. K., Lee, J. H., Cheng, R., et al. (2010) · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · doi:10.1016/j.mad.2010.02.001 · Cited by 18
“Note that similar cumulative measures characterizing frailty, comorbidity, and allostatic load are extensively used in studies of aging associated with declining health/well-being status (de Groot et al., 2003; Fried et al., 2001, 2009; Kulminski et al., 2008b; Puts et al., 2005; Rockwood and Mitnitski, 2007; Seeman e…”
BackgroundDich, N., Doan, S. N., Mika Kivimaki, B., Meena Kumari, B., & Rod, N. H. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.001 · Cited by 18
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BackgroundTowards a biological geriatric assessment
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Estresse de aculturação e carga alostática entre mulheres imigrantes mexicanas
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“Following the methods of Seeman et al.(34), a measure of allostatic load (AL) was designed to summarize levels of physiological activity across a range of regulatory systems, including systolic and diastolic blood pressure, BMI and waist-to-hip ratio, total cholesterol, triglycerides and HgbA1c.”
MethodHippocampus Mediates the Effect of Emotional Support on Cognitive Function in Older Adults
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“All of which may ultimately contribute to the psychological and/or physical aspects of MDD (Furtado & Katzman, 2015; McEwen, 2003; Raison, Capuron, & Miller, 2006; Seeman et al., 2001; Soczynska et al., 2011).”
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“WHR, SBP, DBP, HDL, TC/HDL, cortisol and HbA1c were also included in the original operationalization of AL, as introduced by Seeman et al. (2001).”
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“This chronic physiologic dysregulation in childhood has been associated with impaired cognitive functioning, increased mortality in adulthood, and a number of secondary health problems (compromised immune system functioning, obesity, and cardiac problems; McEwen, 2000 ; Seeman, McEwen, Rowe, & Singer, 2001 ).”
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“…(as assessed by a validated questionnaire) on the health outcome of cardiometabolic/immunologic “allostatic load” risk profile (as assessed by future blood sampling) (Robertson et al., 2017; Seeman et al., 2001) is mediated by a predominance of cardiovascular threat reactivity in daily life.”
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“Research suggests that chronic stressors elicit a cascade of biological responses that may be functional in the short term, but over time damage the systems that regulate the body’s stress response (48–50).”
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“…and practical challenges (Renwick, 2016), the call to bridge these disciplines in examinations of human behavior, health, and development from both social and biological scientists is decades old (Bateson et al., 2017; Crimmins and Seeman, 2001; Fletcher and Boardman, 2013; Maynard et al., 2018).”
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“Urinary catecholamine and cortisol excretion over time provide a more integrated assessment of sympathetic nervous system and HPA axis activity (Seeman et al., 1997, 2001), and by obtaining overnight 12-hour urine samples, many factors more frequently seen in the daytime ICU environment (e.g.,…”
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“Particularly relevant to this discussion is the concept of allostatic load, that is, the cumulative physiological burden put on the body through attempts to adapt to the demands of life (Seeman, McEwen, Rowe, & Singer, 2001 ).”
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“Allostatic load is an established predictor of health and mortality later in life (Ganzel, Morris, & Wethington, 2010; McEwen & Seeman, 1999; Seeman et al., 2001).”
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“…between AL and cognition in older adults (Booth et al., 2015; Juster et al., 2010; Karlamangla et al., 2002; Narbutas et al., 2019, 2021; Seeman et al., 2001) and highlighted that higher AL was related to lower global cognition and executive functions, but not working and episodic…”
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Multisystem Dysregulation and Bone Strength: Findings From the Study of Midlife in the United States
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“Allostatic load (AL), an index of such dysregulation across systems, has been shown to predict a number of adverse health outcomes, including mortality (6–8), decline in functional status (6, 9, 10), decline in cognitive function (9–11), incident cardiovascular disease (10), depressive disorder (12), and frailty (13).”
BackgroundSelf-citationChanges in Dried Blood Spot Hb A1c with Varied Postcollection Conditions
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“However, allostatic load is predictive of worse health outcomes including mortality (Wu et al., 2010, Seeman et al., 2004b, Seeman et al., 2001, Borrell et al., 2010), future cardiac events (Seeman et al., 1997, Mottillo et al., 2010), functional decline (Seeman et al., 2001, Karlamangla et al.,…”
InfluentialJia, H., & Chen, H. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105395 · Cited by 16
Kelley, D. P., Singleton, S. P., Venable, K. E., Sturm, G., Skovgaard, A., Francis, J., Neylan, T. C., Bradley, E., Woolley, J. D., Picard, M. A., et al. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106419 · Cited by 14
“…et al., 2001; Prasad et al., 2019) and other tissues (Miao et al., 2023; Tham et al., 2018), characterizing the shift from allostatic states to AL (Buckwalter et al., 2016; Hilliard et al., 2016; Leslie and Vartak, 2020; McEwen and Wingfield, 2003; Seeman et al., 2001, 1997; Suvarna et al., 2020).”
Warren, A. (2025) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2025.2594067 · Cited by 22
“Allostatic load refers to the cumulative physiological burden on the body that results from repeated or chronic exposure to stress, leading to dysregulation across multiple systems, including neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune pathways (Seeman et al., 2001).”
Work stress related cardiovascular diseases among construction professionals
Kamardeen, I. (2021) · Built Environment Project and Asset Management · doi:10.1108/bepam-06-2021-0081 · Cited by 15
A Preliminary Study on the Relationship Between Athletes' Ability to Self-Regulate and World Ranking
Dupee, M., Werthner, P., & Forneris, T. (2015) · Biofeedback · doi:10.5298/1081-5937-43.2.01 · Cited by 14
Early-Life Circumstances, Health Behavior Profiles, and Later-Life Health in Great Britain
van den Broek, T. (2020) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264320981233 · Cited by 16
“Consistent with earlier work (Seeman et al., 2001), all 13 indicators were dichotomized based on quartiles in the weighted sex-specific distributions, whereby scores in the least favorable quartile were coded as one (See Supplementary Appendix A).”
ResultOtto, B., Kokkelink, L., & Brüne, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715153 · Cited by 18
New perspectives on coping in bipolar disorder.
Grassi‐Oliveira, R., Daruy-Filho, L., & Brietzke, E. M. (2010) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.3922/j.psns.2010.2.005 · Cited by 14
Intra-individual cortisol variability and low-grade inflammation over 10 years in older adults
Herriot, H., Wrosch, C., Gouin, J.-P., & Miller, G. E. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.12.010 · Cited by 15
Niedzwiedz, C. L. (2019) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100433 · Cited by 16
“This method used to derive the allostatic load score has been used in numerous previous studies (McCrory et al., 2019; Robertson et al., 2017; Seeman et al., 2001).”
MethodNiño, M., & Hearne, B. N. (2020) · Ethnicity and Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2020.1821175 · Cited by 14
“…associated with these social and economic disadvantages can set into motion a set of physiological responses, known as biological dysregulation, that can lead to chronic health conditions and early death (Geronimus 1992; Seeman et al. 1997, 2001; Karlamangla et al. 2002; Geronimus et al. 2010).”
Backgroundde Vries, H., Kamphuis, W., Oldenhuis, H. K. E., van der Schans, C. P., & Sanderman, R. (2021) · JMIR Cardio · doi:10.2196/28731 · Cited by 17
“Allostatic load is therefore considered a measure of the cumulative biological burden on health [15].”
BackgroundHealth Disparities, Social Class, and Aging
Whitfield, K. E., Thorpe, R. J., & Szanton, S. L. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-380882-0.00013-9 · Cited by 15
I don’t want to come back down: Undoing versus maintaining of reward recovery in older adolescents
Gilbert, K. E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Gruber, J. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000128 · Cited by 13
Zhang, T., Yan, L. L., Chen, H., Jin, H., & Wu, C. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045369 · Cited by 13
Multiple group membership, social network size, allostatic load and well-being: A mediation analysis
Gallagher, S., Muldoon, O. T., & Kate, M. B. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110636 · Cited by 13
Takeshita, R. S. C. (2022) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21687 · Cited by 13
Igboanugo, S., & Mielke, J. G. (2023) · Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/21642850.2023.2255026 · Cited by 17
“Compelling evidence shows that AL consistently increases with age (Beckie, 2012; Crim-mins et al., 2003; Seeman et al., 2001).”
BackgroundRelationships between Dietary Habits and Allostatic Load Index in Metabolic Syndrome Patients
Kim, J. Y. (2013) · Korean Journal of Family Medicine · doi:10.4082/kjfm.2013.34.5.334 · Cited by 13
“38) Carbohydrates preference 1st Quartile (2–3) 1 1 1 1 1 1 2nd Quartile (4) -0.”
Linking Race, Cancer Outcomes, and Tissue Repair
Byun, J. S., Park, S., Caban, A., Jones, A. C., & Gardner, K. L. (2017) · American Journal Of Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.10.009 · Cited by 13
Shin, S., Behrens, E. A., Parmelee, P. A., & Kim, G. (2021) · The American journal of geriatric psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2021.07.010 · Cited by 14
Allostatic load index in patients with multiple sclerosis: A case-control study
Waliszewska‐Prosół, M., Nowakowska-Kotas, M. M., Misiak, B., Chojdak-Łukasiewicz, J., Budrewicz, S. P., & Pokryszko‐Dragan, A. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105788 · Cited by 13
Association of primary allostatic load mediators and metabolic syndrome (MetS): A systematic review
Osei, F., Block, A., & Wippert, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.946740 · Cited by 14
Allostatic load: historical origins, promises and costs of a recent biosocial approach
Serviant-Fine, T., Arminjon, M., Fayet, Y., & Giroux, É. (2023) · BioSocieties · doi:10.1057/s41292-023-00303-0 · Cited by 13
“McEwen expanded the AL conceptual development in an oft‑quoted article (McEwen 1998), followed by new promising results based on the same cohort (Seeman et al. 2001).”
Ligocki, I. Y., Earley, R. L., Hellmann, J. K., & Hamilton, I. M. (2015) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.08.004 · Cited by 13
Cultural Constructions of Health and Illness
Engebretson, J. C. (2003) · Journal of Holistic Nursing · doi:10.1177/0898010103254914 · Cited by 13
Heart Trouble and Racial Group Identity: Exploring Ethnic Heterogeneity Among Black Americans
Dagadu, H. E., & Christie‐Mizell, C. A. (2013) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-013-9109-7 · Cited by 14
Midlife reversibility of early-established biobehavioral risk factors: A research agenda.
Reiss, D., Nielsen, L. O., Godfrey, K. M., McEwen, B. S., Power, C., Seeman, T. E., & Suomi, S. J. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000780 · Cited by 15
Self-citationHuman Biodemography: Some challenges and possibilities
Christensen, K. (2008) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2008.19.43 · Cited by 13
A Comparison of Biological Risk Factors in Two Populations: The United States and Japan
Crimmins, E. M., Vasunilashorn, S. M., Kim, J. K., Hagedorn, A., & Saito, Y. (2008) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2008.00232.x · Cited by 12
“…studies have shown that summary indexes of biological risk for an individual are an even better predictor of subsequent CHD, death, and functioning problems (Crimmins et al. 2006; Crimmins and Seeman 2004; Hu et al. 2007; Karlamangla et al. 2006; Seeman et al. 2001, 2004b; Zethelius et al. 2008).”
BackgroundPeripheral biomarker composite associated with smaller hippocampal volume
Glover, D. A., Garcia-Aracena, E. F., & Mohlman, J. (2008) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e32830b364d · Cited by 13
Bracha, H. S. (2003) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2003.08.003 · Cited by 13
“For reviews of recent important contributions, see work by Porges et al.(Porges, 2001; Sahar et al., 2001b), McEwen (McEwen and Lasley, 2002; Seeman et al., 2001; Goldstein and McEwen, 2002) and Sapolsky(Sapolsky, 2002, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodStress of stoicism: Low emotionality and high control lead to increases in allostatic load
Doan, S. N., Dich, N., & Evans, G. W. (2016) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2016.1171716 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Seeman, T. E., McEwen, B. S., Rowe, J. W., & Singer, B. H.
- Affiliations
- Aetna (United States) (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2001-04-03
- Volume
- 98
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 4770-4775
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC31909
- OpenAlex
- W2015252215
- Cited by
- 1,385
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 91 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 63 · 2014: 79 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 30.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag017056-03)
- National Institute on Aging (AG00586, AG 17056)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, psychology, and well-being
- Keywords
- allostatic load, successful aging, older adults, mortality, cognitive decline, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, biological mediators, aging
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aging, Female, Humans, Male, Regression Analysis, Stress, Physiological, Microvascular Angina
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