The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Different time courses for visual perception and action priming
Open accessAbstract
Visual stimuli may remain invisible but nevertheless produce strong and reliable effects on subsequent actions. How well features of a masked prime are perceived depends crucially on its physical parameters and those of the mask. We manipulated the visibility of masked stimuli and contrasted it with their influence on the speed of motor actions, comparing the temporal dynamics of visual awareness in metacontrast masking with that of action priming under the same conditions. We observed priming with identical time course for reportable and invisible prime stimuli, despite qualitative changes in the masking time course. Our findings indicate that experimental variations that modify the subjective visual experience of masked stimuli have no effect on motor effects of those stimuli in early processing. We propose a model that provides a quantitative account of priming effects on response speed and accuracy.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“(i) Participants were thoroughly instructed and practised each task before completing the experiment, in contrast to Vorberg et al. (2003), where participants received minimal instructions and did not practice the tasks.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“(ii) Instead of performing one task per session, as in Vorberg et al. (2003), we alternated prime discrimination blocks and mask discrimination blocks in the same session (see Fig. 1C) to control for session-level confounds, such as differences in motivation or fatigue.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“(iv) As in Vorberg et al. (2003), we collected the data of six participants across multiple sessions. However, instead of performing a frequentist fixed effect analysis at the group level as Vorberg et al. (2003) did, we tested at the single subject level using a Bayesian statistical framework.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Further, many unconscious priming studies, including Vorberg et al. (2003), rely on what is known as the double t-test approach.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Unlike Vorberg et al. (2003), at the group level, participants were able to discriminate the direction of the prime above chance across all SOAs, and unlike in the original study this ability also strongly increased with SOA (12.5 ms: BF10 = 107, d = 0.2; 25 ms: BF10 = 1015, d = 0.2; 37.5 ms: BF10 > 1040, d = 0.3; 50 ms: BF10 = 1014, d = 0.6; 62.5 ms: BF10 > 1040, d = 0.8; 75 ms: BF10 = 1028, d =”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Moreover, based on (Vorberg et al. 2003) we expected most SOAs in the prime discrimination task to show null or near-zero effects.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. 2003
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, unlike in the original study by Vorberg and colleagues, evidence for unconscious priming was not consistently present across all SOAs”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Based on the visual material and specifications in the methods of Vorberg et al. (2003), we reconstructed the stimuli to be as close as possible to the original.”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In the first session, we tried to replicate the core original experiment by Vorberg et al. (2003) as closely as possible (albeit with slightly different presentation times and different display technology; see Stimuli, timing and apparatus above).”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In a classic study by Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., Heinecke, A., Schmidt, T., & Schwarzbach, J. (Different time courses for visual perception and action priming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2003, 100(10), 6275–6280.), observers were slower to identify the direction of an arrow mask when it followed an arrow prime pointing in the opposite direction, despite being unable to identify”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As can be seen in Fig. 2, the overall data pattern was similar to that obtained in their study (see Fig. 1A and B).”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The data pattern from the initial session mostly replicated the original results by Vorberg et al. (2003).”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The mask discrimination results closely resembled the original results by Vorberg et al. (2003): RTs were, on average, longer for incongruent compared with congruent trials (see 3B), and this priming effect difference became more pronounced as the SOA increased (12.5 ms: BF10 = 0.009, d = 0.1; 25 ms: BF10 = 1019, d = 0.8; 37.5 ms: BF10 = 1013, d = 1.4; 50 ms: BF10 = 1013, d = 1.7; 62.5 ms: BF10 =”
From Evidence for unconscious priming using a Bayesian single-subject approach (2026) · cites this paper as Vorberg et al. (2003)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions
Fleiss, J. L., Levin, B., & Paik, M. C. (2003) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471445428 · Cited by 18,646
Detection Theory: A User's Guide
Macmillan, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (1991) · Cited by 5,415
Milner, A. D., & Goodale, M. A. (2002) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/7111.003.0023 · Cited by 3,345
The Theory of Stochastic Processes
Cox, D. R., Miller, H. D., Weiss, G., & Shuler, K. (1966) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3047872 · Cited by 3,324
Priming and Human Memory Systems
Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2296719 · Cited by 2,595
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Bizzi, E. (2000) · Cited by 2,547
Using confidence intervals in within-subject designs
Loftus, G. R., & Masson, M. E. J. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210951 · Cited by 2,433
The time course of perceptual choice: The leaky, competing accumulator model.
Usher, M., & McClelland, J. L. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.550 · Cited by 2,152
Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions.
Plewis, I., & Fleiss, J. L. (1982) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2982107 · Cited by 1,753
Holender, D. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00021269 · Cited by 1,290
Neural Control of Voluntary Movement Initiation
Hanes, D. P., & Schall, J. D. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.274.5286.427 · Cited by 1,145
Neural dynamics of form perception: Boundary completion, illusory figures, and neon color spreading.
Grossberg, S., & Ennio Mingolla, B. (1985) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.2.173 · Cited by 1,112
Imaging unconscious semantic priming
Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Le Clec'H, G., Koechlin, E., Mueller, M., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., van de Moortele, P.-F., & Le Bihan, D. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/26967 · Cited by 1,081
Attentional resolution and the locus of visual awareness
He, S., Cavanagh, P., & Intriligator, J. M. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/383334a0 · Cited by 976
Visual Masking: An Integrative Approach
Breitmeyer, B. G. (1984) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 842
Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80448-1 · Cited by 837
Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315000114-11 · Cited by 705
The theory of stochastic processes
Papoulis, A. (1966) · Journal of the Franklin Institute · doi:10.1016/0016-0032(66)90048-2 · Cited by 701
Three Cognitive Markers of Unconscious Semantic Activation
Greenwald, A. G., Draine, S. C., & Abrams, R. L. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.273.5282.1699 · Cited by 686
Scientific Approaches to Consciousness
Cohen, J. D., & Schooler, J. W. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315806563 · Cited by 479
Effects of masked stimuli on motor activation: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence.
Eimer, M., & Schlaghecken, F. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.24.6.1737 · Cited by 467
Neuronal correlates of visibility and invisibility in the primate visual system
Macknik, S. L., & Livingstone, M. S. (1998) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/393 · Cited by 424
Effects of masked stimuli on motor activation: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence.
Eimer, M., & Schlaghecken, F. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.24.6.1737 · Cited by 356
The Wave Theory of Difference and Similarity
Link, S. W. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780429054709 · Cited by 351
Rees, G. E. (1997) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 323
Motor activation without conscious discrimination in metacontrast masking.
Klotz, W., & Neumann, O. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.25.4.976 · Cited by 273
Stochastic Dynamic Models of Response Time and Accuracy: A Foundational Primer
Smith, P. L. (2000) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1006/jmps.1999.1260 · Cited by 271
Neural correlates of consciousness : empirical and conceptual questions
Metzinger, T. K. (2000) · Cited by 268
Reaction time to stimuli masked by metacontrast.
Fehrer, E. V., & Raab, D. H. (1962) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0040795 · Cited by 267
Parallels between Perception without Attention and Perception without Awareness
Merikle, P. M., & Joordens, S. (1997) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1006/ccog.1997.0310 · Cited by 265
Bridgeman, B. (1980) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(80)90400-x · Cited by 195
Correction for fast guessing and the speed-accuracy tradeoff in choice reaction time
Yellott, J. I. (1971) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-2496(71)90011-3 · Cited by 190
Mechanisms of Priming by Masked Stimuli: Inferences From Event-Related Brain Potentials
Leuthold, H., & Kopp, B. (1998) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00053 · Cited by 173
The finger in flight: real-time motor control by visually masked color stimuli
Schmidt, T. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00421 · Cited by 170
Self-citationWeiskrantz, L. (1999) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524588.001.0001 · Cited by 159
Bachmann, T. (1984) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03205926 · Cited by 142
Cortical dynamics of lateral inhibition: Metacontrast masking.
Francis, G. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.3.572 · Cited by 128
Integrated retrieval cues as a mechanism for priming in retrieval from memory.
Dosher, B. A., & Rosedale, G. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.2.191 · Cited by 122
Perception and preference in short-term word priming.
Huber, D. E., Shiffrin, R. M., Lyle, K. B., & Ruys, K. I. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.1.149 · Cited by 106
Implicit and Explicit Mental Processes
Kirsner, K., Speelman, C. P., Maybery, M., O'Brien-Malone, A., MacLeod, C. J., & Anderson, M. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203773321 · Cited by 88
Implicit and explicit mental processes
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-0629 · Cited by 81
Quantitative theories of metacontrast masking.
Francis, G. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.4.768 · Cited by 75
Correlates of metacontrast in single cells of the cat visual system
Bridgeman, B. (1975) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(75)90065-6 · Cited by 55
Visual Perception Without Awareness: Priming Responses by Color
Schmidt, T. (2000) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4928.003.0014 · Cited by 50
Self-citation(1998) · Computers & Mathematics with Applications · doi:10.1016/s0898-1221(98)90697-6 · Cited by 40
Gamma-range oscillations in backward-masking functions and their putative neural correlates.
Purushothaman, G., Öğmen, H., & Bedell, H. E. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.3.556 · Cited by 36
Visual evoked potentials: Concomitants of metacontrast in late components
Bridgeman, B. (1988) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03208812 · Cited by 29
A visual evoked potential study of metacontrast masking
Jeffreys, D. A., & Musselwhite, M. J. (1986) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(86)90011-8 · Cited by 27
Priming of eye movements by masked stimuli
Schwarzbach, J. V. (1999) · Digitale Bibliothek Braunschweig (Verbundzentrale Göttingen (VZG)) · doi:10.24355/dbbs.084-200511080100-198 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 51 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- E M Reingold, P M Merikle Consciousness, eds M Davies, G W Humphreys (Blackwell, Oxford), pp. 40–57 (1993).
- R D Luce Response Times (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1986).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Consciousness, accessibility, and the mesh between psychology and neuroscience
Block, N. (2007) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x07002786 · Cited by 1,146
What is consciousness, and could machines have it?
Dehaene, S., Lau, H., & Kouider, S. (2017) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aan8871 · Cited by 855
Brain Dynamics Underlying the Nonlinear Threshold for Access to Consciousness
Del Cul, A., Baillet, S., & Dehaene, S. (2007) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050260 · Cited by 753
Toward a computational theory of conscious processing
Dehaene, S., Charles, L., King, J.-R., & Marti, S. (2014) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.12.005 · Cited by 404
Unconscious Activation of the Cognitive Control System in the Human Prefrontal Cortex
Lau, H. C., & Passingham, R. E. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4335-06.2007 · Cited by 358
Metadata
- Authors
- Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., Heinecke, A., Schmidt, T., & Schwarzbach, J.
- Affiliations
- Technische Universität Braunschweig (DE)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2003-04-28
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 6275-6280
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC156362
- OpenAlex
- W2006679631
- Cited by
- 450
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 36
- FWCI
- 6.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System (Università degli Studi di Trento) (submittedVersion)
- GRO (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Keywords
- action priming, metacontrast masking, visual perception, visual awareness, masked stimuli, motor response speed, response accuracy, temporal dynamics, early visual processing, stimulus visibility
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Brain, Choice Behavior, Humans, Functional Laterality, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
