Periodicity of eating and human health: present perspective and future directions
Open accessAbstract
Periodicity of eating and human health: present perspective and future directionsPopulation dietary advice needs to be firmly rooted in cultural context.A very important part of that cultural context is the variation in food-consumption patterns evident within and between different populations.It follows that a knowledge of the factors influencing patterns of food consumption and of the impact of different patterns of food consumption on health is an essential element in devising culturally-appropriate dietary advice.The present workshop has, for the first time ever, brought together the many disciplines which study these factors: applied nutrition and dietetics, experimental nutrition, chronobiology, physiology, behavioural genetics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, clinical medicine and dentistry.Its achievement is in outlining our present state of knowledge and indicating how the diverse disciplines involved should interact in future research to fill the gaps in our present knowledge.It is evident from the papers presented and from the extensive debate that there is a deficiency in quantifying periodicity of eating.It should be noted that the title of the workshop excludes any value-laden terms such as 'meals' or 'snacks'.Quantifying periodicity of eating in such terms will inevitably occur, but because such terms vary in their meaning between individuals, let alone between different cultures, their use should be limited in future research.Ingestive behaviour includes ingestion of foods, beverages and micronutrients.The definition of an eating occasion may vary in different studies, depending on the purpose of the investigation.However, it includes consideration of the minimal time span between intakes and the minimum level of intake.Thus, in future research on the periodicity of eating, an objective definition of what constitutes an eating occasion is needed.For example, for the study of energy intake an eating occasion may be defined as an event which provides at least 210kJ with a separation in time from a preceding or follow eating event of at least 15 min.Another problem in quantifying periodicity of eating is one shared by all studies which seek to measure food and nutrient intake, namely inaccurate reporting.Given the wellestablished trend of the overweight to be particularly likely to under-report, much of the older cross-sectional epidemiological data, elegant for its day, linking hypercholesterolaemia, CHD, diminished glucose tolerance and obesity to reduced periodicity of eating, must be questioned.This is especially relevant to work on energy balance, given the evidence presented at the present workshop that the overweight are biased in underreporting of what are commonly referred to as 'snacks'.These methodological difficulties, therefore, necessitate cautious interpretation of the contribution of 'snacks' to nutrient intake, although on balance there are sufficient robust data to conclude that significant proportions of macronutrients and micronutrients are so derived.A final point to be made in this context is that notwithstanding the difficulty of measuring periodicity of eating, the value of the data obtained should not be underestimated.There is an abundance of data on average daily intakes of nutrients but comparatively little knowledge regarding individual temporal distribution or of the interrelationships of such distributions between nutrients.Such knowledge would greatly help our understanding of the metabolic and behavioural effects of different periodicities of
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Some studies include a minimum energy criterion as part of the meal definition, for example 210 kJ.
“Some studies also include a minimum energy criterion as part of the meal definition. For example, in some studies, EO were only treated as an EO if they contributed a minimum amount of energy (for example, 210 kJ)( 15 , 42 , 54 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [54]
Although there has been general consensus that a universally accepted definition of a meal is crucial, there have been few attempts to define meals in a consistent and standardised way.
“Although over the past few decades there has been general consensus that a universally accepted definition of a meal is crucial( 54 , 98 ), there have been few attempts to define meals in a consistent and standardised way.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [54]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Prepurntion and Use of Food-based Dietary Guidelines
(1996)
Unresolved
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 1 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Association between Eating Patterns and Obesity in a Free-living US Adult Population
Ma, Y. (2003) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwg117 · Cited by 725 · see citing works
“The number of eating episodes per day was calculated using the definition by Gibney and Wolever (15), which classifies an eating episode as an event that provides at least 50 kcal (or 210 kJ) with a minimum time interval between episodes of at least 15 minutes; 50 kcal are equivalent to 0.5 cup (236.6 ml) of Coke (The…”
MethodInfluentialUnderstanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422414000262 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
“For example, in some studies, EO were only treated as an EO if they contributed a minimum amount of energy (for example, 210 kJ)((15,42,54)).”
Meal and Snack Patterns Are Associated with Dietary Intake of Energy and Nutrients in US Adults
Kerver, J. M., Yang, E. J., Obayashi, S., Bianchi, L., & Song, W. O. (2006) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.09.045 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Live to the rhythm, slave to the rhythm
Someren, E. J. W. V., & der Lek, R. F. R. (2007) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.003 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Eating Patterns and Meal Frequency of Elite Australian Athletes
Burke, L. M., Slater, G., Broad, E., Haukka, J., Modulon, S., & Hopkins, W. G. (2003) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.13.4.521 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“One of the problems of studying such periodicity of eating is the lack of a standard definition of meals or of eating occasions in general (18).”
BackgroundResultBreakfast habits affect overall nutrient profiles in adolescents
Matthys, C., Henauw, S. D., Bellemans, M., Maeyer, M. D., & Backer, G. D. (2007) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980007248049 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“However, there is no scientific consensus about specific recommendations concerning meal frequency and health outcomes 33,34 .”
Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.114660 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“However, it is unclear how a 210-kJ energy criterion was established (32) and whether this value is the most appropriate choice for defining EOs.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialContribution of snacks and meals in the diet of French adults: a diet-diary study
Bellisle, F., Dalix, A. M., Mennen, L., Galan, P., Hercberg, S., de Castro, J. M., & Gausseres, N. (2003) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(03)00088-x · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“The definition of ‘‘meals’’ and ‘‘snacks’’ is the matter of an extensive debate in the scientific literature devoted to quantifying the periodicity of eating [21].”
Primary dysmenorrhea: prevalence in adolescent population of Tbilisi, Georgia and risk factors
Gagua, T., Tkeshelashvili, B., & Gagua, D. (2012) · Journal of the Turkish-German Gynecological Association · doi:10.5152/jtgga.2012.21 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Gibney and Wolever (24), classifies an eating episode as an event that provides at least 50 kcal, and, as generally one snack does not provide the above mentioned amount, we did not regard it as “meal” intake.”
BackgroundSocial, temporal and situational influences on meat consumption in the UK population
Horgan, G. W., Scalco, A. R., Craig, T. P., Whybrow, S., & Macdiarmid, J. I. (2019) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.03.007 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Association between eating frequency, weight, and health
Palmer, M. A., Capra, S., & Baines, S. K. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00204.x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Meals, snacks and food choices in Brazilian shift workers with high energy expenditure
de Assis, M. A. A., Nahas, M. V., Bellisle, F., & Kupek, E. J. (2003) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1046/j.1365-277x.2003.00448.x · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Smith, K. J., Breslin, M. C., McNaughton, S. A., Gall, S., Blizzard, L., & Venn, A. (2017) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1111/1753-6405.12715 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Snacking Is Associated with Overall Diet Quality among Adults
Zizza, C. A., & Xu, B. (2012) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.08.046 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Benefits of Snacking in Older Americans
Zizza, C. A., Tayie, F. A., & Lino, M. (2007) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.02.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The Nutritional Status and Eating Habits of Shift Workers: A Chronobiological Approach
Pasqua, I. C., & Moreno, C. R. C. (2004) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1081/cbi-200040310 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Such results ratify earlier studies describing circadian rhythms in human food consumption (Castro, 1996; Gibney and Wolever, 1997; Reinberg et al., 1979; Waterhouse et al., 1997).”
ResultFood-based Classification of Eating Episodes (FBCE)
LENNERNÄS, M., & ANDERSSON, I. (1999) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.1998.0196 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“No one definition that has been universally accepted for categorization of eating events in the scientific lterature (Drummond et al., 1996; Gatenby, 1997; Gibney & Wolever, 1997).”
Effect of viscosity on learned satiation
Mars, M., Hogenkamp, P. S., Gosses, A., Stafleu, A., & de Graaf, C. (2009) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.04.018 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Snacking Recommendations Worldwide: A Scoping Review
Potter, M., Vlassopoulos, A., & Lehmann, U. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmx003 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Of note, this concurs with the many definitions of snacks as used in the scientific literature in which snacks have been defined as <15% of total daily energy intake (11, 119, 120) or ≥210 kJ (50 kcal) (26).”
BackgroundCo-Designing Food Trackers with Dietitians
Luo, Y., Liu, P., & Choe, E. K. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300822 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“, foodallergy [34], gastrointestinal problems [52]), and understand how patients’ eating habits affect their health [30, 45, 46].”
BackgroundDietary lipids with potential to affect satiety: Mechanisms and evidence
Maher, T., & Clegg, M. (2018) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2017.1423277 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Humans eat in episodes consisting of either meals or snacks (Gibney and Wolever 1997).”
BackgroundLoy, S. L., Chan, J. K. Y., Wee, P. H., Colega, M., Cheung, Y. B., Godfrey, K. M., Kwek, K. Y. C., Saw, S., Chong, Y. S., Padmapriya, N., et al. (2016) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.116.239392 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Zhu, Y., & Hollis, J. (2016) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114516001112 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Time-related eating patterns and chronotype are associated with diet quality in pregnant women
Gontijo, C. A., Cabral, B. B. M., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Maia, Y. C. D. P., & Crispim, C. A. (2019) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2018.1518328 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“The number of meals was determined by the number of caloric events ≥50 kcal/day with time intervals between meals of ≥15 min (Gibney and Wolever 1997), reported in the 24HR Recall.”
BackgroundMaternal night-time eating and sleep duration in relation to length of gestation and preterm birth.
Loy, S., Cheung, Y., Cai, S., Colega, M. T., Godfrey, K., Chong, Y., Shek, L., Tan, K., Chong, M., Yap, F., et al. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.018 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Increased eating frequency linked to decreased obesity and improved metabolic outcomes
House, B. T., Shearrer, G. E., Miller, S., Pasch, K. E., Goran, M. I., & Davis, J. N. (2014) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.81 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Food Intake Following Gastric Bypass Surgery: Patients Eat Less but Do Not Eat Differently
Livingstone, M. B. E., Redpath, T., Naseer, F., Boyd, A., Martin, M., Finlayson, G., Miras, A. D., Bodnár, Z., Kerrigan, D. D., Pournaras, D. J., et al. (2022) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxac164 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“An eating occasion has been defined as “an event which provides at least 210 kJ with a separation in time from a preceding or following eating event of at least 15 min” (26), but this arbitrary definition has not been subjected to independent evaluation.”
Gontijo, C. A., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Crispim, C. A., & Maia, Y. C. D. P. (2020) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.110756 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Huseinovic, E., Winkvist, A., Bertz, F., Forslund, H. B., & Brekke, H. K. (2013) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2013.200 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Food consumption on campus is associated with meal eating patterns among college students
Fonseca, L. B., Pereira, L. P., Rodrigues, P. R. M., Andrade, A. C. D. S., Muraro, A. P., Gorgulho, B. M., Pereira, R. A., & Ferreira, M. G. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520003761 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Furthermore, there is the possibility of misclassification of the meals, not only because meals were identified according to the time of food intake but also because aminimumenergy value to consider eating occasion as a meal was no established(52); therefore, any dietary intake made within the considered time interval…”
BackgroundHouse, B. T., Cook, L. T., Gyllenhammer, L. E., Schraw, J. M., Goran, M. I., Spruijt‐Metz, D., Weigensberg, M. J., & Davis, J. N. (2013) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20487 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“least 50 calories and at least 15 min from any previous EO (24).”
Harden, C. J., Jones, A. N., Maya-Jimenez, T., Barker, M. E., Hepburn, N. J., Garaiová, I., Plummer, S. F., & Corfe, B. M. (2012) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114511006003 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
From the children's perspective: What are candy, snacks, and meals?
Adams, E. L., & Savage, J. S. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.04.034 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Silva, C. M., Teixeira, B. S., Wright, K. P., Maia, Y. C. D. P., & Crispim, C. A. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14112202 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“First, the number of meals was established by the number of caloric events ≥50 kcal/day with time intervals of ≥15 min between meals [42] reported in the dietary record.”
BackgroundLin, L., Guo, J., Aqeel, M. M., Gelfand, S. B., Delp, E. J., Bhadra, A., Richards, E. A., Hennessy, E., & Eicher‐Miller, H. A. (2021) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab339 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Estimation and consumption pattern of free sugar intake in 3-year-old Irish preschool children
Crowe, M., O'Sullivan, M., Cassetti, O., & O'Sullivan, A. (2019) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-019-02056-8 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Eating Frequency and Colon Cancer Risk
Wei, J. T., Connelly, A., Satia, J. A., Martin, C. F., & Sandler, R. S. (2004) · Nutrition and Cancer · doi:10.1207/s15327914nc5001_3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Effects of timing of food intake on eating patterns, diet quality and weight gain during pregnancy
Gontijo, C. A., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Crispim, C. A., & Maia, Y. C. D. P. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114519003398 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The number of eating episodes was determined by the number of energetic events ≥209·2 kJ/d, with time intervals between food and/ or beverage consumptions of ≥15 min(28) reported in the 24HR.”
BackgroundLoy, S. L., Cheung, Y. B., Colega, M., Chia, A., Han, C. Y., Godfrey, K. M., Chong, Y. S., Shek, L. P., Tan, K. H., Lek, N., et al. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11112686 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“with time intervals between eating episodes of ≥15 min [26].”
Breakfast size is associated with daily energy intake and diet quality
Wang, W., Grech, A. L., Gemming, L., & Rangan, A. (2020) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.110764 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Joint association of meal frequency and diet quality with metabolic syndrome in Iranian adults
Azizi, N., Shab‐Bidar, S., Bazshahi, E., Lesani, A., Javanbakht, M. H., & Djafarian, K. (2022) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-022-00507-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Meals were known as occasions where large amounts of foods were consumed or were standardized based on time of consumption [24, 25] to contain no more than one breakfast, lunch, and dinner, but allowing for multiple snacks.”
BackgroundLoy, S. L., Wee, P. H., Colega, M., Cheung, Y. B., Aris, I. M., Chan, J. K. Y., Godfrey, K. M., Gluckman, P. D., Tan, K. H., Shek, L. P., et al. (2017) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.117.250639 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Snacking may improve physical function among older Americans
Xu, B., Yu, G. P., Zizza, C. A., Liu, H., & Zhao, L. (2013) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-012-0441-1 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“under-reporting is a concern for foods and beverages consumed as snacks (31); however, the multiple-pass approach has been suggested as a way to improve under-reporting (32).”
Balieiro, L. C. T., Gontijo, C. A., Marot, L. P., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Maia, Y. C. D. P., & Crispim, C. A. (2021) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2021.111530 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lesani, A., Djafarian, K., Akbarzade, Z., Janbozorgi, N., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2022) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521005067 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“were consumed or were standardised based on time of consumption(9,10) to contain no more than one breakfast, lunch”
MethodEating Patterns in a Free-Living Healthy U. S. Adult Population
Ma, Y., Bertone‐Johnson, E. R., Stanek, E. J., Reed, G. W., Herbert, J. R., Cohen, N. L., Olendzki, B. C., Rosal, M. C., Merriam, P. A., & Ockene, I. S. (2005) · Ecology of Food and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/03670240590904326 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“” To distinguish eating episodes from one another, we used the definition proposed by Gibney and Wolever (1997) which classified an eating episode as an event that provides at least 50 kilocalories (kcal) (209 kiloJoules (kj)) with a minimum time interval between episodes of at least 15 minutes.”
MethodTime-related meal patterns and breakfast quality in a sample of Iranian adults
Lesani, A., Barkhidarian, B., Jafarzadeh, M., Akbarzade, Z., Djafarian, K., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2023) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-022-00666-w · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Meals and snacks were known as occasions where large amounts of energy contain food (at least 50 kcal) were consumed and were standardized based on time (at least 15 min intervals by prior and posterior eating occasion) [36, 37], also they were standardized to contain no more than one breakfast, lunch, and dinner, but…”
BackgroundHouse, B. T., Shearrer, G. E., Boisseau, J. B., Bray, M. S., & Davis, J. N. (2018) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-018-0217-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“eating occasion definition was used to quantify eating frequency and each EO was defined as ≥50 cal and ≥15 min from any previous EO [9].”
MethodMeals and Eating Practices within a Multi-generational Approach-A Qualitative Insight Study
Brombach, C. (2017) · International Journal of Clinical Nutrition & Dietetics · doi:10.15344/2456-8171/2017/122 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ilkay, H. O. (2025) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2025.11.002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Temporal Dietary Pattern Cluster Membership Varies on Weekdays and Weekends but Both Link to Health
Lin, L., Guo, J., Gelfand, S. B., Bhadra, A., Delp, E. J., Richards, E. A., Hennessy, E., & Eicher‐Miller, H. A. (2023) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.12.049 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Eide, H. D., Aukner, C., & Iversen, P. O. (2013) · Nordic journal of nursing research · doi:10.1177/010740831303300105 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“There is currently no consensus regarding a standard metric for measuring the eating frequency of individuals (40), and the overnight fast is monitored differently in different studies (10, 21, 24).”
BackgroundMs, Z., Mirnalini, K., Safiah, M. Y., Tahir, A., Haslinda, S., Siti Rohana, D., My, K. Z., Hasyami, S. M., Normah, H., & Fatimah, A. S. (2008) · PubMed · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lesani, A., Karimi, M., Akbarzade, Z., Djafarian, K., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2024) · Nutrition & Metabolism · doi:10.1186/s12986-024-00868-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Each eating occasion in this study involved a minimum of 50 kcal consumed within a 15-min interval [37].”
Vahlhaus, J., Peters, B., Hornemann, S., Ost, A.-C., Kruse, M., Busjahn, A., Pfeiffer, A. F. H., & Pivovarova‐Ramich, O. (2025) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105737 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lin, L., Guo, J., Li, Y., Gelfand, S. B., Delp, E. J., Bhadra, A., Richards, E. A., Hennessy, E., & Eicher‐Miller, H. A. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14173483 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The time duration of the eating occasions was not available in NHANES, thus 15 min/occasion was applied at each time of reported intake based on a previous study [13] where reported energy at a time was divided by 15 min to determine the energy per minute for each minute within the 15-min eating occasion.”
MethodHunt, L. C., Dashti, H. S., Chan, Q. M., Gibson, R., & Vetter, C. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12041170 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“We defined every intake ≥50 kcal as an eating occasion [19].”
Lesani, A., Soveid, N., Clark, C. C. T., Barkhidarian, B., Gholami, F., & Mojani-Qomi, M. S. (2025) · Nutrition & Metabolism · doi:10.1186/s12986-025-00985-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The number of EOs was defined as events provided at least 50 kilocalories within 15-minute intervals [29].”
Phoi, Y. Y., Bonham, M. P., Rogers, M., Dorrian, J., & Coates, A. M. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2342937 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…occasions were specifically defined as containing ≥210 kJ/50 kcal and separated by >15 minutes (Leech et al. 2015a), similar to previous studies (Gibney et al. 1997; Hartline-Grafton et al. 2010; Ma 2003; Murakami and Livingstone 2016) and endorsed by AHA recommendations (St-Onge et al. 2017).”
Assmus, F., Galbete, C., Knüppel, S., Schulze, M. B., Beune, E., Meeks, K. A. C., Nicolaou, M., Amoah, S., Agyemang, C. O., Klipstein‐Grobusch, K., et al. (2021) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v65.5435 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Katsarova, S., Redman, E. L., Arsenyadis, F., Brady, E. M., Rowlands, A. V., Edwardson, C. L., Goff, L. M., Khunti, K. K., Yates, T. E., Hall, A. P., et al. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15183868 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“EOs were assessed using the Gibney and Wolever (1997) definition: “an event which provides at least 210kJ (>50 kcal) with a separation in time from a preceding or following eating event of at least 15 min” [28].”
MethodRedpath, T., Naseer, F., Price, R. K., Boyd, A., Martin, M., le Roux, C. W., Spector, A. C., & Livingstone, M. B. E. (2021) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2021.100846 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lin, L., Guo, J., Bhadra, A., Gelfand, S. B., Delp, E. J., Richards, E. A., Hennessy, E., & Eicher‐Miller, H. A. (2023) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2023.07.004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An introduction to the Food-Based Dietary Guidelines for the Elderly in South Africa
Napier, C. E., Grobbelaar, H., & Oldewage-Theron, W. H. (2021) · South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1080/16070658.2021.1950376 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“− the consumer’s understanding of and ability to apply the information, which will be considered during the development process.(57,58)”
BackgroundUlbricht, G. (2002) · Food Service Technology · doi:10.1046/j.1471-5740.2002.00029.x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Circadian and temporal eating patterns in relation to metabolic syndrome in Iranian women
Lesani, A., & Mojani-Qomi, M. S. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-09427-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mirrafiei, A., Hasanzadeh, M., Sheikhhossein, F., Majdi¹, M., Djafarian, K., & Shab-Bidar, S. (2023) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-023-00711-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Meal definitions Meals were known as occasions where large amounts of food were consumed or were standardized based on time of consumption (32, 33) to contain no more than one breakfast, lunch, and dinner, but allow for multiple snacks.”
BackgroundCross-sectional associations between meal timing patterns and diet quality indices in Iranian women
Lesani, A., & Mojani-Qomi, M. S. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-06897-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The duration of the eating window was determined by measuring the number of hours between the first and last EOs on a given day 32 .”
Eating Frequency and Anthropometry
Duval, K., & Doucet, É. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1788-1_178 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ma, Y., Bertone‐Johnson, E. R., Stanek, E. J., Cohen, N. L., & Ockene, I. S. (2011) · North American Journal of Medicine and Science · doi:10.7156/v4i4p222 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Silveira, N., Balieiro, L. C. T., Gontijo, C. A., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Maia, Y. C. D. P., & Crispim, C. A. (2024) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114523002908 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The number of eating episodes was determined by the number of energetic events ≥ 50 kcal/d, with time intervals between food and/or beverage consumption of ≥ 15 min (48) .”
Nakano, K., Tanaka, M., Nishihara, N., Usui, Y., Yonezawa, K., Hikita, N., Tahara‐Sasagawa, E., Sasaki, S., Nagamatsu, T., Haruna, M., et al. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17050807 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Meal frequencies were defined as events in which the participant consumed ≥ 50 kcal, with a time interval between eating episodes of ≥ 15 min, as described in previous studies [17,21,22].”
Healthy Food Choice and Dietary Behavior in the Elderly
Brombach, C., Landmann, M., Ziesemer, K., Bartsch, S., & Winkler, G. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805376-8.00011-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Association of eating patterns with blood pressure and body mass index: the INTERMAP study
Aljuraiban, G. S. (2014) · doi:10.25560/24145
The Effects of Eating Periodicity on Weight Loss
Mohr, C. R. (2005) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
The effect of physical activity on the insulin response to frequent meals
Holmstrup, M. E. (2011) · Syracuse University Libraries (Syracuse University)
Determinants of adolescent snacking behavior
Silvis, K. (2002)
(1997) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970094
Pereira, C. S., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Gontijo, C. A., Marot, L. P., Fahmy, W. M., Crispim, C. A., & Maia, Y. C. D. P. (2024) · Sleep Science · doi:10.1055/s-0044-1787276
“43 The eating duration was determined by the interval between the fi rst and last caloric episodes in the 24-hour dietary recall.”
MethodDoes the timing and frequency of meals impact caloric and macronutrient intake in pregnant women?
Carrijo, L. R., Gontijo, C. A., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Crispim, C. A., & Maia, Y. C. D. P. (2025) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2025.2490500
“The number of eating episodes was determined by the count of caloric events ≥ 50 kcal/day, with time intervals between meals of ≥15 minutes (Gibney and Wolever 1997) as reported in the 24-hour recall.”
Gontijo, C. A., Domingos, J. B., Balieiro, L. C. T., Teixeira, G. P., Fahmy, W. M., Maia, Y. C. D. P., & Crispim, C. A. (2025) · Journal of the American Nutrition Association · doi:10.1080/27697061.2025.2497483
Kalo, D., & Mashayeke, B. (2012) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
Peters, B., Froehlich, N., Machann, J., Dambeck, U., Honsek, C., Gerbracht, C., Sachno, A., Kemper, M., Kabisch, S., Fritsche, A., et al. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.01.01.25342809
Lesani, A., Daneshzad, E., Calvo-Malvar, M., Clark, C. C. T., Zahedi, H., Vilela, S., & Mojani-Qomi, M. S. (2026) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-026-01280-3
“An eating occasion (EO) was defined as any event during which at least 50 kilo-calories were consumed within a 15-minute interval [22].”
Lacerda, A. S., dos Santos, K., da Silva, L. B. G., Zajdenverg, L., Bittencourt, K., Marvila, K., Rodrigues, L. R., Almeida, M., & Saunders, C. (2026) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2026.113159
Chrononutrition and Physical Fitness in Schoolgirls Aged 10–14 Years: Associations with Obesity Risk
Alhabib, H. A., Alkahtani, S. A., & Alhussain, M. H. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18091441
“The number of meals was defined according to a minimum intake of ≥ 50 kcal separated by at least 15 min, consistent with previous chrononutrition research [26].”
- Authors
- Gibney, M. J., & wolever, T. M. S.
- ORCID
- wolever, T. M. S
- Venue
- British Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- S1
- Pages
- S3-S5
- ISSN
- 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2662
- OpenAlex
- W2111541138
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 0.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- eating occasions, food consumption patterns, dietary recommendations, energy balance, overweight, snacks, energy intake, chronobiology, eating behaviour, hypercholesterolemia, coronary artery disease, glucose tolerance, obesity, macronutrient intake, micronutrient intake
- MeSH terms
- Diet, Feeding Behavior, Health Promotion, Humans, Periodicity, Guidelines as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
