Contribution of snacks and meals in the diet of French adults: a diet-diary study
Abstract
To investigate the relative contributions of meals and snacks in the daily intake of free-living humans, 54 French adults maintained food intake diaries for four 7-day periods. They recorded all food and fluid intakes mentioning whether, in their opinion, each intake event was a snack or a meal. The weekly food diaries also contained information on the circumstances of each event such as time and place, number of persons present, and affective states (hunger, satiety, etc.) before and after intake. On average, 2.7 meals and 1.3 snacks were consumed each day. Very few days included no snacking. Total daily energy and nutrient intake were not different between days with and days without snacks. Snacks differed from meals in several dimensions. Meals were about twice as large as snacks in energy and weight. Nutrient intake, in absolute values, was higher in meals. In proportions, however, snacks contained more CHO and less fat and proteins. Most foods were consumed in larger amounts in the context of meals but a few (sweets, cereal bars, biscuits, and sodas) were mostly consumed as snacks. Hunger was more intense before but less intense after meals than snacks. The satiety ratio was higher for snacks than meals. Time of day affected many intake parameters. For example, afternoon snacks exhibited a high satiety ratio for a modest intake. The present study describes the status of several potential determining factors at the time of snacks in humans, demonstrating a specific role for snacks, as opposed to meals, in the daily eating pattern of healthy adults.
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The period of time used to separate different eating occasions varies across studies, with intervals of 15 min, 30 min, 45 min, or 1 h reported.
“Indeed, the period of time used to separate different EO varies across studies, with intervals of 15 min( 40 , 42 , 50 ), 30 min( 53 ) or 45 min( 15 ) or 1 h( 51 ) reported.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
Some studies include a minimum energy criterion as part of the meal definition, for example 210 kJ.
“Some studies also include a minimum energy criterion as part of the meal definition. For example, in some studies, EO were only treated as an EO if they contributed a minimum amount of energy (for example, 210 kJ)( 15 , 42 , 54 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified, although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual eating occasion, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.
“Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified( 15 , 23 , 45 – 48 , 52 , 53 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 70 , 75 , 77 , 78 , 82 ), although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual EO, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
Across five studies, snacks provided a lower proportion of total energy from fat and/or protein than did meals.
“When the nutritional contribution of meals and snacks are analysed relative to their contribution to EI, a finding across five studies was that snacks provided a lower proportion of total energy from fat and/or protein than did meals( 15 , 36 , 48 , 65 , 73 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
Main meals are when the largest volume of food is normally consumed.
“This is supported by other research highlighting that main meals are when the largest volume of food is normally consumed( 15 , 81 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [15]
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- Authors
- Bellisle, F., Dalix, A. M., Mennen, L., Galan, P., Hercberg, S., de Castro, J. M., & Gausseres, N.
- Affiliations
- Inserm (FR)
- Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Bellisle, F.
- Venue
- Physiology & Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-07
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 183-189
- ISSN
- 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2153716790
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 4.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- snacks, meals, dietary habits, dietary intake, energy intake, nutrient intake, satiety, hunger, time of day, eating context, French adults
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Circadian Rhythm, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, France, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Satiety Response, Seasons, Diet Records
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