State of science: mental workload in ergonomics

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Research in the 1990s was also concerned with the proliferation of automation, and a significant body of work was directed at advanced physiological metrics of workload.

“Research in the 1990s was also concerned with the proliferation of automation, and a significant body of work was directed at the emergence of more advanced physiological metrics of workload.”

May combine two claims.

The relative decade-on-decade increase in hits for MWL in the 2000s was 36%, against 17% for 'physical workload' and 'workload'.

“Nevertheless, the relative decade-on-decade increase in hits for MWL in the 2000s suggests a more recent prominence over the comparator terms - 36% for 'mental workload' against 17% for 'physical workload' and 'workload'.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The relative increase in MWL hits over comparator terms indicates a genuine increase in prominence rather than only database coverage.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 1990s saw a shift towards theoretical developments and modelling efforts.

“A cursory review of these search results indicates that the focus in the 1980s was much more on the measurement of MWL, while the 1990s saw a shift towards theoretical developments and modelling efforts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The focus in the 1980s was much more on the measurement of MWL.

“A cursory review of these search results indicates that the focus in the 1980s was much more on the measurement of MWL, while the 1990s saw a shift towards theoretical developments and modelling efforts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first decade of the twenty-first century has seen more examples of MWL applications coming to the fore.

“Finally, the first decade of the twenty-first century has seen more examples of MWL applications coming to the fore.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There has been rapid growth of MWL research in the rail industry.

“Of these, driving stands out as a particular focus area especially in the last decade, although we should also note the rapid growth of MWL research in the rail industry, reflecting the resurgence in ergonomics and human factors interest within this domain (e.g. Wilson and Norris 2005).”

• cites Wilson and Norris 2005Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The categorisation of publications into application areas based on title and abstract is valid for identifying thematic trends.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impacts of skill (or experience) and age on MWL are an emerging theme.

“Another theme emerging from this review surrounds the impacts of skill (or experience) and age on MWL, which can, more generally, be related to the still unsolved puzzle of individual differences (see Damos 1988; Szalma 2009).”

• cites Damos 1988Not checked yet

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• cites Szalma 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The predominance of transport applications among MWL research over the last two decades cannot be ignored.

“The predominance of transport applications among MWL research over the last two decades cannot be ignored.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The other key theme in the 1980s was adaptive interfaces.

“The other key theme in the 1980s was on adaptive interfaces.”

May combine two claims.

The theoretical underload redline does exist, but identifying or quantifying it remains elusive.

“The theoretical underload redline does exist and is illustrated on Figure 2, but identifying or quantifying it remains elusive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

MWL looks to be just as nebulous a concept today as it did three decades ago.

“We would certainly not wish to claim that progress in measurement or definition has ended; MWL looks to be just as nebulous a concept today as it did three decades ago, and researchers continue to debate over definitions to this day.”

May combine two claims.

Underload is just as bad for performance as overload, and leads to the classic inverted-U curve.

“But we know this is not the case; underload is just as bad for performance as overload, and leads to the classic inverted-U curve as illustrated in the figures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The field has developed from tackling the thorny issue of defining the concept, through the development of metrics of MWL, to the more recent focus on applied research.

“The field has developed from tackling the thorny issue of defining the concept, through the development of metrics of MWL, to the more recent focus on applied research, which, in turn, reflects the technological and societal concerns of our times.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Technology progresses in areas such as transportation, which has already dominated the MWL scene in recent years.

“This is particularly the case as technology progresses in areas such as transportation, which has already dominated the MWL scene in recent years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This notion offers a neat hypothetical explanation of underload and overload, but it still does not let us quantify or predict these redlines in an applied setting.

“While this notion offers a neat hypothetical explanation of underload and overload, it still does not let us quantify or predict these redlines in an applied setting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

New neuroergonomics techniques are emerging as strong contenders for finally ascertaining the physiological correlates of mental demand.

“Indeed, in measurement, new neuroergonomics techniques are emerging as strong contenders for finally ascertaining the physiological correlates of mental demand.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Research in this field has so far failed to provide absolute limits on human performance due to the complex nature of the subject and of the processes involved.

“Research in this field has so far failed to provide absolute limits on human performance due to the complex nature of the subject and of the processes involved.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The promise of workload-based adaptive automation from the 1980s is yet to be fulfilled.

“Earlier in the paper, we reviewed research from the 1980s promising workload-based adaptive automation. Some 25 years later, that promise is yet to be fulfilled.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mental workload (MWL) is one of the most widely invoked concepts in ergonomics research and practice.

“Mental workload (MWL) is one of the most widely invoked concepts in ergonomics research and practice (Flemisch and Onken 2002; Loft et al. 2007; Parasuraman and Hancock 2001; Tsang and Vidulich 2006; Wickens 2008).”

• cites Flemisch and Onken 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Loft et al. 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Parasuraman and Hancock 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Underload is not vigilance, since vigilant monitoring is actually a highly demanding task.

“It is easier to state what underload is not: it is not vigilance (since the consensus has been for some time that vigilant monitoring is actually a highly demanding task; Warm, Dember, and Hancock 1996) nor is it boredom (usually it is about doing very little rather than doing nothing at all).”

• cites Warm, Dember, and Hancock 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The current opinion is that there is an optimum range of MWL which is associated with best performance.

“Indeed, the current opinion is that there is an optimum range of MWL which is associated with best performance (Hancock and Warm 1989; see also Figure 1).”

• cites Hancock and Warm 1989Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Automatic processing is associated with expert performance and is characteristically fast, unconscious and almost completely liberated from attentional resource constraints.

“Automatic processing is associated with expert performance and is characteristically fast, unconscious and almost completely liberated from attentional resource constraints.”

• cites Schneider and Shiffrin 1977Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If demands begin to exceed capacity, skilled operators can either adjust their strategy to compensate or else performance necessarily degrades.

“If demands begin to exceed capacity, skilled operators can either adjust their strategy to compensate or else performance necessarily degrades.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is not settled whether underload is distinct from other influences on performance such as automation-related complacency and supervisory control.

“Nevertheless, it is probably fair to say that the jury is out as to whether underload is distinct from other influences on performance such as automation-related complacency and supervisory control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There may be different kinds of resources available, such as other team members or technological support, to cope with demand.

“There may also be different kinds of resources available, as in other team members, or technological support to cope with demand.”

May combine two claims.

There is no direct guarantee that simply reducing MWL improves performance, and the opposite may be true.

“Therefore, there is no direct guarantee that simply reducing MWL improves performance, and in fact the opposite may be true.”

May combine two claims.

Fixed resource models of workload have drawbacks: absolute capacity demands are illusive, and they do not directly consider nonattentional factors such as experience, learning, age, or willingness to invest effort.

“Fixed resource models of workload are not without their drawbacks, though. For instance, absolute capacity demands are illusive; they do not directly consider nonattentional factors, such as experience, or more slowly changing variation in attentional resources due to learning or the reduction of capacity with age, or even the willingness to invest effort.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is no universal agreement between the numerous definitions of MWL.

“Although numerous definitions have been offered, it is obvious that there is no universal agreement between these disparate statements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Underload is not boredom; it is about doing very little rather than doing nothing at all.

“It is easier to state what underload is not: it is not vigilance (since the consensus has been for some time that vigilant monitoring is actually a highly demanding task; Warm, Dember, and Hancock 1996) nor is it boredom (usually it is about doing very little rather than doing nothing at all).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Demands (stress) can have multiple facets, such as time pressure and task complexity.

“Demands (stress) can have multiple facets, such as time pressure and task complexity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Controlled processing is the converse of automatic processing, and in the practical world these two elements lie on a continuum.

“The converse is controlled processing, and in the practical world these two elements lie on a continuum.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Suboptimal workload can mean either overload or underload.

“Suboptimal workload can mean either overload or underload (Brookhuis and de Waard 2000).”

• cites Brookhuis and de Waard 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

MWL has become a topic of increasing importance as modern technology imposes ever greater cognitive demands.

“MWLhasthus become a topic of increasing importance as modern technology imposes ever greater cognitive demands.”

May combine two claims.

Investing effort may be a positive adaptation in circumstances of underload but could be further detrimental when faced with overload.

“Consequently, if effort is invested, then MWL will be increased (cf. Shaw et al. 2013) - which may be a positive adaptation in circumstances of underload, but could be further detrimental when faced with overload.”

May combine two claims.

Automatic processing releases attentional resources for other tasks, with a resulting decrease in MWL.

“This is consistent with the attentional resources approach, as automatic processing releases attentional resources for other tasks, with a resulting decrease in MWL.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

MWL, as a multidimensional construct, is determined by characteristics of the task, of the operator and, to a degree, the environmental context in which performance occurs.

“Thus, MWL as a multidimensional construct, is determined by characteristics of the task (e.g. demands, performance), of the operator (e.g. skill, attention) and, to a degree, the environmental context in which the performance occurs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In the present authors' view, underload requires some engagement in the task, but such engagement is exceptionally low.

“In the present authors' view, there has to be some engagement in the task, but such engagement is exceptionally low.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Underload is a more nebulous term than MWL, as different researchers take it to mean different things.

“Underload itself, while an intuitive concept, is in many ways a more nebulous term than MWL, as different researchers take it to mean different things.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

MWL in real-world tasks is determined by the balance of automatic and controlled processing involved.

“From this view, MWL in real-world tasks is determined by the balance of automatic and controlled processing involved.”

May combine two claims.

There is a strong consensus that mental underload can be just as detrimental to performance as mental overload, with both leading to performance degradation, attentional lapses and errors.

“That said, there is a strong consensus that mental underload can be just as detrimental to performance as mental overload, with both leading to performance degradation, attentional lapses and errors (Wilson and Rajan 1995).”

• cites Wilson and Rajan 1995Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are commonalities among the various interpretations of MWL.

“There are, however, commonalities among the various interpretations, which do help to shed light here.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The international standard on MWL (ISO 10075, 2000) is heavily dependent on the stress/strain analogy for its terminology.

“Although the stress/strain comparison has been criticised for being too simplistic (e.g. Bainbridge 1974), even the international standard on MWL (ISO 10075, 2000) is heavily dependent on the analogy for its terminology.”

• cites ISO 10075, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Bainbridge 1974Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

MWL is a peculiar concept that has intuitive appeal but remains surprisingly difficult to define.

“MWL is a peculiar concept that has intuitive appeal, but remains surprisingly difficult to define (see also situation awareness; Smith and Hancock 1995).”

• cites Smith and Hancock 1995Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The trade-off between stress and strain may have different effects on the human, as measured by different objective and subjective metrics.

“Finally, the trade-off between stress and strain may have different effects on the human - as measured by the different objective and subjective metrics which we describe later (see, e.g., Bevan and Macleod 1994).”

• cites Bevan and Macleod 1994Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

MWL becomes a product of the resources available to meet task demands.

“Resources, in this arena of discussion, often refer to attentional resources (e.g. Wickens 1980, 2002); thus, MWL becomes a product of the resources available to meet task demands (Welford 1978).”

• cites Welford 1978Not checked yet

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• cites Wickens 1980, 2002Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An analogy is often made between mental and physical load, in that each expresses two components: stress (task demands) and strain (impact on the human).

“An analogy is often made between mental and physical load, in that each expresses two components - stress (i.e. task demands) and strain (impact on the human; cf. Schlegel 1993).”

• cites Schlegel 1993Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Performance can be maintained at the cost of individual strain or vice versa.

“Thus, performance can be maintained at the cost of individual strain or vice versa.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Overload occurs when the operator is faced with more stimuli than they are able to handle while maintaining their own standards of performance.

“Overload occurs, for instance, when the operator is faced with more stimuli than (s)he is able to handle while maintaining their own standards of performance.”

May combine two claims.

As workload increases, the response time to, and the chance of missing, a signal increases.

“As workload increases, the response time to, and the chance of missing, a signal increases.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Visual perception is crucial for drivers, while concurrent execution of another in-vehicle visual task competes for visual attention with the primary driving task.

“Visual perception is crucial for drivers while concurrent execution of another in-vehicle visual task (for instance, looking at a cell phone) competes for visual attention with the primary driving task.”

May combine two claims.

MWL can increase heart rate and decrease heart rate variability at the same time.

“MWL can increase heart rate and decrease heart rate variability at the same time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Physiological measures are a natural type of workload index since work demands physiological activity by definition.

“Physiological measures are a natural type of workload index since work demands physiological activity by definition.”

May combine two claims.

So far, NIRS and BCI methods have been restricted to laboratory conditions, and the equipment is extremely expensive to purchase and use.

“So far, these methods have been restricted to laboratory conditions, and the equipment is extremely expensive to purchase and use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Posner (2012) illustrated that new methods to study human operators at work are gaining momentum, advancing our understanding of brain plasticity.

“Recently, Posner (2012) illustrated that new methods to study human operators at work are gaining momentum, advancing our understanding of brain plasticity.”

• cites Posner 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Brain activity and activity of certain facial muscles such as the corrugator supercilii are measures of interest for workload.

“Other measures of interest are the activity of the brain (Brookhuis and de Waard 1993; de Waard and Brookhuis 1991) and of certain facial muscles, such as the corrugator supercilii (Hoogendoorn et al. 2010; Jessurun, Steyvers, and Brookhuis 1993).”

• cites Brookhuis and de Waard 1993Not checked yet

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• cites de Waard and Brookhuis 1991Not checked yet

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• cites Hoogendoorn et al. 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Blood pressure is closely coupled to heart rate and sensitive to workload.

“Closely coupled to heart rate and also sensitive to workload is blood pressure (Rau 2004).”

• cites Rau 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Suboptimal workload may emerge from disruptions in the operator's physiology, for instance when under stress, although other non-workload stressors can influence these indices.

“Suboptimal workload may also emerge from disruptions in the operator's physiology, for instance when under stress (Hancock and Warm 1989), although other non-workload stressors (such as from the environment or sleep loss) can influence these indices.”

• cites Hancock and Warm 1989Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In complex, safety-critical systems where MWL research is usually most pertinent, both underload and overload are very real concerns.

“In the complex, safety-critical systems where MWL research is usually most pertinent and/or most pursued (such as transport, as we shall see later), both underload and overload are very real concerns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Operator conditions in fixed positions such as operating motor vehicles, trains and airplanes are suitable for the next generation of MWL field studies.

“Operator conditions in fixed positions such as operating motor vehicles, trains and airplanes are suitable for this next generation of MWL field studies.”

May combine two claims.

While numerous physiological measures are now relatively easily measured in the operational environment, attention is less easily monitored in ambulant situations but not impossible.

“While numerous physiological measures are now relatively easily measured in the operational environment, attention is less easily monitored in ambulant situations - but not impossible.”

May combine two claims.

MWL is a subjective state; people are able to express themselves in words or indications on scales in post-task responses.

“MWLis a subjective state as well; people are able to express themselves in words or indications on scales in post-task responses (Zijlstra 1993).”

• cites Zijlstra 1993Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Beta activity (12-30 Hz) is predominant when the participant is generally awake and alert; alpha activity (8-12 Hz) indicates developing drowsiness; theta activity (5-8 Hz) may lead to falling asleep.

“Beta activity (1230 Hz) is predominant when the participant in the study is generally awake and alert, while the activity dropping to Alpha activity (8-12 Hz) indicates developing drowsiness, and going further down into the theta region (5-8 Hz) may even lead to falling asleep.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The multidimensional nature of MWL is reflected in the variety of workload metrics available.

“As we have noted, the multidimensional nature of MWL is reflected in the variety of workload metrics available (see also, e.g. Gawron 2008).”

• cites Gawron 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

While both low and high MWL are basic precursors to errors, an exact relationship between MWL and accident causation is not easily established, let alone measured in practice.

“But while both low and high MWL are undoubtedly basic precursors to errors, an exact relationship between MWL and accident causation is not easily established, let alone measured in practice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Neuroergonomics opens new windows to the study of MWL.

“Modern integrated, wireless measurement facilities enable more easily accessible EEG measurement (e.g. Makeig et al. 2002), while more integrated approaches such as neuroergonomics, suggested by Parasuraman (2011), open new windows to the study of MWL.”

• cites Parasuraman 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The PDT is based on the premise that visual attention narrows as workload increases.

“The PDT is based on the premise that visual attention narrows as workload increases.”

May combine two claims.

Driving on an urban road with traffic, traffic signs and traffic lights leads to increased workload according to heart rate measures (high heart rate, low variability), which immediately reverses when the driver stops if one of the lights turns red.

“Driving on an urban road with traffic, traffic signs and traffic lights leads to increased workload according to these measures (high heart rate, low variability), which immediately reverses when the driver stops if one of the lights turns red.”

• cites De Waard 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Modern integrated, wireless measurement facilities enable more easily accessible EEG measurement.

“Modern integrated, wireless measurement facilities enable more easily accessible EEG measurement (e.g. Makeig et al. 2002), while more integrated approaches such as neuroergonomics, suggested by Parasuraman (2011), open new windows to the study of MWL.”

• cites Makeig et al. 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Parasuraman 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Brookhuis and de Waard discriminated between underload and overload by referring to error sources: underload leads to reduced alertness and lowered attention; overload leads to distraction, diverted attention and insufficient time for adequate information processing.

“Brookhuis and de Waard (2000) discriminated between underload and overload by referring to error sources, the former leading to reduced alertness and lowered attention, the latter to distraction, diverted attention and insufficient time for adequate information processing.”

• cites Brookhuis and de Waard 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Light physical activity could actually compensate for the deficits imposed by mental underload.

“In fact, recent research has explored the interaction between physical and MWL across some of these metrics, espousing the idea that light physical activity could actually compensate for the deficits imposed by mental underload (Basahel, Young, and Ajovalasit 2010).”

• cites Basahel, Young, and Ajovalasit 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Both physical workload and MWL have a clear impact on heart rate, heart rate variability and respiration.

“Both physical workload and MWL are well known to have a clear impact on heart rate, heart rate variability and respiration (Mulder 1992), and delineating the effects of one over the other can prove troublesome in applied research.”

• cites Mulder 1992Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In the central region of the region model, workload gradually increases while performance is at its best, remaining relatively constant.

“In the central region, workload gradually increases while performance is at its best, remaining relatively constant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the apparent concern in early adaptive interface work was more with overload than underload, issues of optimising workload and defining workload 'redlines' or thresholds have occupied researchers since some of the earliest work in this field.

“Although the apparent concern is more with overload than underload, it is clear that issues of optimising workload and defining workload 'redlines' or thresholds have occupied researchers since some of the earliest work in this field.”

May combine two claims.

Higher task demand leading to increased MWL does not have to affect performance, and not all measures have to be strongly correlated.

“Thus, higher task demand leading to increased MWL does not have to affect performance, and not all measures have to be strongly correlated.”

• cites de Waard 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hayashi examined the MWL of software engineers in programming tasks.

“Also, Hayashi (1988; Hayashi and Kosugo 1987) examined the MWL of software engineers in programming tasks.”

• cites Hayashi 1988Not checked yet

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• cites Hayashi and Kosugo 1987Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If one measure reflects an increase in workload and another measure does not, then measures are said to dissociate.

“If one measure reflects an increase in workload and another measure does not, then measures are said to dissociate (see also Hancock 1996; Yeh and Wickens 1988).”

• cites Hancock 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Yeh and Wickens 1988Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mind and body cannot be separated in ergonomics research.

“All of this chimes with recent suggestions that mind and body cannot be separated in ergonomics research (cf. Marras and Hancock 2014).”

• cites Marras and Hancock 2014Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Nowakowski was concerned with online MWL assessment for a knowledge-based adaptive system, with a particular focus on individual differences between users.

“Similarly, Nowakowski (1987) was also concerned with online MWL assessment for a knowledge-based adaptive system, with a particular focus on individual differences between users.”

• cites Nowakowski 1987Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Glass cockpits in commercial aircraft have relieved workload in some areas such as reduced display clutter and more automated flight procedures, but have increased workload in other areas such as more decision options and confusion with operating modes.

“For instance, glass cockpits in commercial aircraft have relieved workload in some areas, such as reduced display clutter and more automated flight procedures. However, the same systems have increased workload in other areas, such as more decision options in any given situation (Hilburn 1997), and confusion with respect to operating modes (Ferris, Wickens, and Sarter 2010; Sarter and Woods 1995).”

• cites Hilburn 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Ferris, Wickens, and Sarter 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Sarter and Woods 1995Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Some automation reduces workload when demand is low but problematically increases workload when demand is high.

“The problem with some automation is that it reduces workload when demand is low but problematically increases workload when demand is high. This tendency is evident when the automation is 'dumb and dutiful' as Wiener (1989) cast it.”

• cites Wiener 1989Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Dissociation has usually been reported between self-reports and measures of performance, and sometimes between physiological and self-report measures.

“Dissociation has usually been reported between self-reports and measures of performance, and sometimes between physiological and self-report measures (Myrtek et al. 1994).”

• cites Myrtek et al. 1994Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The measurement of mental work is founded on the science of psychology, which is comparatively an immature science compared to physics.

“Notwithstanding the progress reported here, the measurement of mental work is founded on the science of psychology and comparatively speaking, psychology is an immature, if no less difficult, science.”

May combine two claims.

Count variables can be used to predict absolute workload values, both above and below the redline, but multitask interference models cannot easily do so at the current stage of their maturity.

“Count variables can be used to predict absolute workload values, both above and below the redline, but multitask interference models cannot easily do so at the current stage of their maturity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

In any resource-limited system, the most relevant measure of demand is specified relative to the supply of available resources.

“In any resource-limited system, the most relevant measure of demand is specified relative to the supply of available resources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These metrics suggest a resolution of the physical versus MWL question, and perhaps even augur the potential to quantify workload and those redlines of performance.

“These metrics suggest a resolution of the physical versus MWL question, and perhaps even augur the potential to quantify workload and those redlines of performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

Metrics of brain oxygenation could essentially represent a quantitative measure of attentional resources.

“It has been suggested (Perrey, Thedon, and Rupp 2010; Shaw et al. 2013) that metrics of brain oxygenation could essentially represent a quantitative measure of attentional resources.”

• cites Perrey, Thedon, and Rupp 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Shaw et al. 2013Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The redline for working memory is roughly seven chunks of information.

“For example we have noted the redline for working memory at roughly seven chunks of information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The need to assess mental work is fuelled by the ever-present practical necessity to measure mental activity and allocate tasks in the modern electronic workplace.

“However, alongside these evident scientific concerns, the need to assess mental work is also very much fuelled by the ever-present practical necessity to measure mental activity and allocate tasks in the modern electronic workplace.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Low demands could be misperceived by the operator, leading to a mismatch in terms of effort invested to perform the task.

“Alternatively, low demands could be misperceived by the operator, leading to a mismatch in terms of effort invested to perform the task (Matthews and Desmond 1997).”

• cites Matthews and Desmond 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many of the measures are differentially sensitive in the different regions.

“Many of the measures are also differentially sensitive in the different regions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Young and Stanton proposed a theory whereby attentional resources shrink in situations of low workload, thus leading to problems when demands suddenly increase.

“Young and Stanton's research into vehicle automation led them to propose a theory whereby attentional resources shrink in situations of low workload, thus leading to problems when demands suddenly increase (see Young and Stanton 2002).”

• cites Young and Stanton 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The redlines of both underload and overload coincide with the points where the demand and resource lines cross over.

“The redlines of both underload and overload coincide with the points where the demand and resource lines cross over; performance degrades in both regions of underload and overload when demands exceed resources.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Effort is voluntary and is related to resource investment.

“As we have already seen earlier in this paper, effort is voluntary and is related to resource investment (cf. Shaw et al. 2013), so this could be compatible with Young and Stanton's (2002) idea.”

• cites Shaw et al. 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The applied problems will assume even greater prominence as we move forward.

“Nevertheless, it is reasonable to suggest that the applied problems will assume even greater prominence as we move forward.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Advances in mobile and wearable computing, augmented reality and similar technologies present great challenges for MWL research in the near future.

“Advances in mobile and wearable computing, augmented reality and similar technologies no doubt present great challenges for MWL research in the near future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Resource supply (based on activation and/or effort) at first lags behind task demands in the underload region, then exceeds it until resources start to asymptote towards the upper capacity limit, and we reach overload.

“This is reflected (albeit with some artistic licence) in Figure 2, as resource supply (based on activation and/or effort) at first lags behind task demands in the underload region, then exceeds it until resources start to asymptote towards the upper capacity limit, and we reach overload.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These advances reflect and further emphasise the role of mental work over physical work in the modern workplace.

“These advances also reflect and further emphasise the role of mental work over physical work in the modern workplace.”

May combine two claims.

In highly automated systems, very low workload is often coupled with fatigue and automation-related complacency, and then a sudden unexpected failure rapidly throws the operator into a highly stressful fault diagnosis and failure management mode, well above the redline, in such a way that the prior loss of situation awareness has rendered them unprepared.

“Here, very low workload is often coupled with fatigue and automationrelated complacency. Then the sudden unexpected failure rapidly throws the operator into a highly stressful fault diagnosis and failure management mode, well above the redline, in such a way that the prior loss of situation awareness has rendered them unprepared.”