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Cited by 1Archaeology and Cultural HeritageArchaeological Research and ProtectionLatin American history and culture

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 42 of the 43 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 51 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

The Longue Durée of Andean Movement Networks: Case Study in the Lauca Altiplano

Open access
Saintenoy, Thibault, Lima, Pilar, Uribe, Mauricio, Carvajal, Felipe, González, Cristian, Crespo, Marta, Malvarez, María Florencia, Mendez-Quiros, Pablo, Jofré, Daniella, González, Federico·2025·Journal of Field Archaeology
DOI 10.1080/00934690.2025.2534236
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Abstract

In the Andes, most archaeological research on road networks has focused on specific historical contexts, like the famous Qhapaq ñan, with relatively little work done to understand the long-term dynamics of these networks. Here, we present a case study on the history of movement networks in the Lauca Altiplano, an upland desert of the south-central Andes that has preserved a dense concentration of ancient infrastructure and traces of movement related to great historical routes, such as the one connecting the famous Potosí silver mines. The results of a multi-scale approach combining road network data from historical maps, satellite photo interpretation, and field survey with topographic and stratigraphic data at way station settlement (tambo) sites, demonstrate the great resilience of the road network until the recent modernization of Andean territories and that the Inca and Spanish Empires did not invest significantly in the transportation system, which was largely managed by indigenous actors.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper presents a multi-scale archaeological case study of movement networks in the Lauca Altiplano, combining historical maps, satellite imagery, pedestrian survey, and excavations at tambo sites. It argues that the road network was highly resilient into the 20th century and that Inca and Spanish imperial investment in transportation infrastructure was limited, with indigenous actors managing most movement.

Key findings

  • Satellite photo interpretation registered 6,674 km of linear features and 1,186 locations with architecture (57% corrals, 32% residential structures); only 27% could support motorized vehicles, 7% were paved, and 52% were not the shortest path between settlements.
  • Historical map analysis compiled 62 maps, of which 25 depicted road networks and 11 were georeferenced; 85% of Risopatrón’s road sections were reproduced on the 1945 Chilean IGM maps, while 21st-century IGM maps show 120% expansion but still include 80% of Risopatrón’s sections, half of which are paved; 20% of Risopatrón’s sections remain visible on satellite imagery but are absent from current IGM maps.
  • Pedestrian survey covered 25 of 31 corridors and 293 km of road segments; built road sections were less than 2% of the total surveyed, average archaeological record density was three per kilometer (densest near seven per kilometer), and only 15 of 40 apachetas contained pre-Hispanic material.
  • Excavations at five tambos totaled 37 m² across 27 test pits: Tamboqollo’s 18 × 5 m rectangular building was colonial despite its kallanka-like form, with 75% of its bone assemblage thermo-altered; Queñuatambo contained only pre-Hispanic pottery; Changamoqo covered 90 ha with 10 pits showing 19th-century Kuchutambo and 20th-century Taypitambo/Lacatambo; Chajpuyo was a 4 ha complex with four monumental chullpas and five pits; Tambo Chungara’s seven 1 m² units revealed no Inca occupation, only Republican industrial artifacts.

Methods

  • Multi-scale historical archaeology combining historical maps (62 compiled, 25 with roads, 11 georeferenced), satellite/aerial imagery interpretation over 517 linear km and 2,043 km² structured as 31 sections, pedestrian survey of 25 corridors covering 293 km, and excavations at five tambo sites (37 m², 27 test pits).
  • Analysis integrated topographic and stratigraphic data, road and roadside architecture, artifact scatters, settlement patterns, biogeography (DEM, multispectral imagery, paleoclimate), and statistical correlations such as Pearson coefficients.
  • The approach follows archéogéographie’s regressive postulates, treating the current road network as a historical product and combining historical documents, archaeological materials, and oral memories.

Limitations

  • The paper states that chronological diagnostics remain approximate because Colonial and Republican material culture is difficult to differentiate; majolica and botija wares continued into the Republican period and lack detailed seriation in the study area; only 40% of sites were examined in situ; excavations at Chajpuyo were limited and no systematic survey was conducted at Cosapa; further excavations are needed at Tambo Chungara; and Corona satellite imagery was limited by resolution and heterogeneous lighting.
  • The paper also states that no Formative or Middle Horizon materials were found associated with a road segment, Late Intermediate Period styles continued into the Late Horizon, no clear chronological distinction exists between the two main parallel axes, and no great Inca tambo was identified.
  • Evident from the text: the study is a single regional case study in the Lauca Altiplano, so its conclusions may not generalize directly to other Andean road networks; some interpretations rely on oral history and surface assemblages, and the absence of clear imperial infrastructure may partly reflect preservation, visibility, or sampling constraints.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00934690.2025.2534236

Cites

42 of 43 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    The palimpsest is denser in the eastern region's corridors.

    “For this reason, the palimpsest is denser in the eastern region's corridors (see Figure 5B).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The detail and accuracy of the cartographic representation of Lauca Altiplano's road networks have improved over the centuries.

    “The detail and accuracy of the cartographic representation of Lauca Altiplano's road networks have improved over the centuries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Some roads and paths are not connected to any settlement but link a formal road to a resource zone, like the tracks going straight uphill to the Polylepis forests and to the areas where male camelids are seasonally isolated.

    “Others are not connected to any settlement but link a formal road to a resource zone, like the tracks going straight uphill to the Polylepis forests and to the areas where male camelids are seasonally isolated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A majority of roads and paths do not connect settlements at the regional and interregional scales: 52% of the registered linear features are not the shortest path between settlements.

    “In addition, this review also indicated that a majority of roads and paths do not connect settlements at the regional and interregional scales: 52% of the registered linear features are not the shortest path between settlements (see Figure 5A).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Radial patterns centered on estancias are a clear example of local road density, resulting from the organic multiplication of desirable paths connecting the settlement to its surroundings, including ceremonial paths between the estancia's church and satellite shrines.

    “A clear example of local road density are the radial patterns centered on estancias (see Figure 5F) as a result of the organic multiplication of desirable paths connecting the settlement to its surroundings, including ceremonial paths between the estancia's church and satellite shrines”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 47
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 28

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Diachronic analyses of Landsat satellite imagery spanning back to the 1970s demonstrate that rainfall variability has likely influenced the greenness and health of bofedales but not significantly their extension.

    “The diachronic analyses of Landsat satellite imagery spanning back to the 1970s demonstrate that rainfall variability has likely influenced their greenness and health but not significantly their extension (Meza Aliaga and Villalobos 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meza Aliaga and Villalobos 2014

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Colonial maps contain sparse information and present several errors in the location of places and the depiction of itineraries.

    “In addition to their geographical distortions, colonial maps contain sparse information and present several errors in the location of places and the depiction of itineraries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The 21st century IGM road network still includes 80% of Risopatrón's road sections, half of which have been paved for motorized vehicles' use.

    “Nevertheless, this latter network still includes 80% of Risopatrón's road sections, half of which have been paved for motorized vehicles' use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The higher density of the road palimpsest mainly reflects the abundance of local roads, while the distribution of regional-scale roads is more balanced.

    “Interestingly, the higher density of the road palimpsest mainly reflects the abundance of local roads, while the distribution of regional-scale roads is more balanced.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Photo interpretation allowed the registration of 6674 km of linear features, as well as 1186 locations with architecture, typically corrals (57%) and residential structures (32%).

    “Photo interpretation allowed us to register 6674 km of linear features, as well as 1186 locations with architecture, typically corrals (57%) and residential structures (32%) (see Figure 5C-E).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The cumulative palimpsest visible from the sky is dense and diverse.

    “Indeed, the cumulative palimpsest visible from the sky is dense and diverse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Historical map analysis highlights the limited Colonial knowledge and early post-Colonial neglect of the section crossing the Lauca Altiplano via Titiri.

    “It also highlights the limited Colonial knowledge and early post-Colonial neglect of the section crossing the Lauca Altiplano via Titiri.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The data reveals a certain degree of nucleation in the distribution of pre-Hispanic evidence, in contrast to the more dispersed pattern observed for historical period ones across the study area.

    “Finally, this data also reveals a certain degree of nucleation in the distribution of pre-Hispanic evidence, in contrast to the more dispersed pattern observed for historical period ones across the study area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Of the accumulated 6674 km of linear features registered, only 27% appear capable of supporting motorized vehicles, with only 7% being paved.

    “Of the accumulated 6674 km of linear features that we have registered, only 27% appear capable of supporting motorized vehicles, with only 7% being paved.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the densest segments, close to seven archaeological records per kilometer were registered, though the average is three.

    “In the densest segments, close to seven archaeological records per kilometer were registered, though the average is three (see Supplemental Material 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Chajpuyo is a multi-component archaeological site dominated by a chullpas complex.

    “Chajpuyo is a multi-component archaeological site dominated by a chullpas complex.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Isolated finds along roads are rare but offer valuable chronological markers for the usage of particular road sections.

    “Isolated finds along roads are rare but offer valuable chronological markers for the usage of particular road sections.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The Republican architecture at Changamoqo was constructed on a site with substantial pre-Hispanic occupation, the architecture of which would have been destroyed by the massive industrial construction.

    “These excavations also revealed that the Republican architecture was constructed on a site with substantial pre-Hispanic occupation, the architecture of which would have been destroyed by the massive industrial construction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Changamoqo is an extensive multi-component archaeological site.

    “Changamoqo is an extent multi-component archaeological site.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Tambo Chungara is located close to the Parinacota lake and Pomerape volcano.

    “Tambo Chungara is located close to the Parinacota lake and Pomerape volcano.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The case study found no evidence of centralized flows of imperial resources during the Inca period and revealed that the Spanish Crown did not invest in road infrastructure in a central area of South America's most significant colonial commercial route.

    “Historically, this case study found no evidence of centralized flows of imperial resources during the Inca period and revealed that the Spanish Crown did not invest in road infrastructure in a central area of South America's most significant colonial commercial route.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The archaeological record would preserve evidence of imperial investment in road infrastructure if it existed.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Both Tamboqollo and Queñuatambo are located in a small valley with a bofedal, apart from the main road.

    “Both tambos are located in a small valley with a bofedal, apart from the main road.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    Until recently, the Arica-La Paz highway was the only asphalted section in the study area.

    “Until recently, the Arica-La Paz highway was the only asphalted section in the study area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    Kuchutambo was a marketplace owned by European entrepreneurs in the late 19th-early 20th centuries A.D.

    “Kuchutambo was a marketplace owned by European entrepreneurs in the late 19th-early 20th centuries A.D.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Topological distortions in the compiled historical road network reflect inconsistencies in certain maps, especially the oldest ones.

    “Topological distortions reflect inconsistencies in certain maps, especially the oldest ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    Furrows at Changamoqo were formed by the passage of mules loaded with silver from Potosí, as located by current Changamoqo's inhabitants.

    “Furrows formed by the passage of mules loaded with silver from Potosí (located by current Changamoqo's inhabitants).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There is no evidence to support the hypothesis of a Colonial-period tambo at Changamoqo: no diagnostic artifacts exclusively associated with the Colonial period were found, as many ceramics of colonial traditions likely continued in use into the Republican period.

    “there is no evidence to support this hypothesis for the Colonial period: no diagnostic artifacts exclusively associated with the Colonial period were found, as many ceramics of colonial traditions (such as botijas and majolicas) likely continued in use into the Republican period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There is no correlation between LIP, Inca, and Colonial periods in the frequencies of pre-Hispanic and historical evidence, while the Colonial and Republican ones do correlate to some degree (Pearson coefficient is 0.4).

    “there is no correlation between Late Intermediate Period (LIP), Inca, and Colonial periods, while the Colonial and Republican ones do correlate to some degree (Pearson coefficient is 0.4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Most artifacts found in the test pits at Tambo Chungara are pieces of industrial iron and glass, including a Bolivian coin from A.D. 1893.

    “Most artifacts found in the test pits are pieces of industrial iron and glass, including a Bolivian coin from A.D. 1893.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Monumental Andean cairns called apacheta were typically found in mountain passes, with the biggest ones at the highest elevations.

    “while famous monumental Andean cairns called apacheta were typically found in mountain passes (Girault 1958), with the biggest ones at the highest elevations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Girault 1958 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Four units excavated in the two courtyards of Kuchutambo, combined with technological and spatial analysis of the architecture, provided material evidence that the main courtyard functioned as a commercial space for storage and trade of goods, while the rear courtyard served as a domestic area during the 19th century A.D.

    “Four units excavated in the two courtyards of Kuchutambo, combined with technological and spatial analysis of the architecture, provided material evidence about the market's operation during the 19th century A.D.: the main courtyard appears to have functioned as a commercial space for the storage and trade of goods, while the rear courtyard served as a domestic area.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Apachetas are systematically found at high-altitude mountain passes, often providing scenic views of the highest volcanoes.

    “Apachetas are systematically found at high-altitude mountain passes, often providing scenic views of the highest volcanoes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Some apachetas also align with modern boundary markers.

    “Some also align with modern boundary markers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Roadside refuges (pascana) are generally basic nonroofed, unmortared structures consisting of a curved stone wall where pre-Hispanic material is frequently found and generally mixed with historical objects.

    “Roadside refuges, locally designated with the Aymara term pascana, are generally basic nonroofed, unmortared structures consisting of a curved stone wall where pre-Hispanic material is frequently found and generally mixed with historical objects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The exploratory excavations documented chronology and specific activities at each site, revealing chronological and functional diversity of the five tambos and establishing an archaeological sequence of the way station settlements' usage since Inca times.

    “These exploratory excavations successfully documented chronology and specific activities at each site.As a result, they revealed the chronological and functional diversity of the five tambos, establishing an archaeological sequence of the way station settlements' usage since Inca times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Surface chronological material at Chajpuyo is abundant, mostly composed of Inca ceramics.

    “Surface chronological material is abundant, mostly composed of Inca ceramics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The first edition of Chile's topographical map in A.D. 1945 reproduces Risopatrón's geometric error and largely the same data, indicating that it was made upon Risopatrón's map.

    “For instance, the first edition of Chile's topographical map in A.D. 1945 reproduces Risopatrón's geometric error and largely the same data, indicating that it was made upon it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The Pearson correlation coefficient between the satellite-based and pedestrian-based archaeological records is only 0.3 for pre-Hispanic evidence and is null for historical evidence.

    “the Pearson correlation coefficient between the satellite-based and pedestrian-based archaeological records is only 0.3 for pre-Hispanic evidence and is null for historical evidence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Roadside refuges and corrals are common and often contain diagnostic artifacts.

    “Roadside refuges and corrals are common and often contain diagnostic artifacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Inca vestiges were sparsely found almost everywhere, and no corridors appear to have centralized imperial-style material flows.

    “Inca vestiges were sparsely found almost everywhere, and no corridors appear to have centralized imperial-style material flows.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Despite its Inca kancha appearance, excavations at Taypitambo found no Inca evidence and suggest that it was an indigenous tambo of the early 20th century A.D.

    “Despite its Inca kancha appearance, excavations found no Inca evidence and suggest that Taypitambo was an indigenous tambo of the early 20th century A.D.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    No detailed seriation is available in the study area to rigorously determine the chronology of botijas, and this colonial tradition continued to be used well into the Republican period.

    “However, the botijas pose a chronological challenge, because no detailed seriation is available in our study area to rigorously determine their chronology and also because, like majolica, this colonial tradition continued to be used well into the Republican period (Rice 1997(Rice , 2017;;Schavelzon 2018Schavelzon [2001]]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rice 1997 source
    • cites Rice 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schavelzon 2018 [2001]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    The Inca styles found at Chajpuyo are exceptionally diverse.

    “The Inca styles found at Chajpuyo are exceptionally diverse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Changamoqo is a vast complex covering 90 ha, comprising a pucara hilltop, an industrial foundry and marketplace (Kuchutambo), and two small indigenous estancias (Taypitambo and Lacatambo).

    “Archaeologically, Changamoqo is a vast complex covering 90 ha, comprising a pucara hilltop, an industrial foundry and marketplace (known as Kuchutambo), and two small indigenous estancias (Taypitambo and Lacatambo).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Most of the other tambo sites are vanished estancias with some artifacts of colonial and pre-Hispanic traditions, though their chronological attribution requires further archaeological study.

    “Most of them are vanished estancias with some artifacts of colonial and pre-Hispanic traditions, although their chronological attribution requires further archaeological study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Small stone cairns likely used as trail markers are common, though their age is generally difficult to assess.

    “Small stone cairns likely used as trail markers are common, though their age is generally difficult to assess.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    Tambo Chungara possesses a privileged panoramic view of the international borderland.

    “Tambo Chungara possesses a privileged panoramic view of the international borderland.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Most Inca roads were subject to reutilization dynamics.

    “since road architecture alone does not constitute a strong chronological proxy and because of the reutilization dynamics of most Inca roads (Hyslop 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hyslop 1991

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Both written archives and archaeological correlates indicate that the Lauca region's two greatest leaders, Chuquichambi and Guamanvilca, were associated with the Inca Empire and headed a socioterritorial settlement network which extended to the Pacific coast in Arica along the S18° parallel.

    “Both written archives and their archaeological correlates indicate that the region's two greatest leaders, Chuquichambi and Guamanvilca, were associated with the Inca Empire and headed a socioterritorial settlement network which extended to the Pacific coast in Arica along the S18° parallel”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Durston and Hidalgo 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Bouysse-Cassagne and Chacama 2012 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Saintenoy, González, and Uribe 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Hyslop's research demonstrated that most Inca roads were not built.

    “He also demonstrated that most Inca roads were not built.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hyslop 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Little research has been conducted on pre- and post-Inca road networks and movement systems compared with Qhapaq ñan archaeology.

    “In comparison with Qhapaq ñan archaeology, little research has been conducted on the pre-and post-Inca road networks and movement systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Very few studies have systematically looked at the dynamic diachronic development of the Andean road system in the longue durée, from the pre-Hispanic up to the present times.

    “Very few studies have systematically looked at the dynamic diachronic development of the Andean road system in the longue durée, from the pre-Hispanic up to the present times.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Marcone's approach was developed through a map perspective that does not consider the dynamics and complexity of the temporality nor diversity of the movement systems involved in these regional histories.

    “However, this innovative and interesting approach was developed through a map perspective that does not consider the dynamics and complexity of the temporality nor diversity of the movement systems involved in these regional histories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The Lauca Altiplano corresponded to the middle section of the Potosí-Arica/Tacna route, whose oldest description locates six tambos in it.

    “The Lauca Altiplano also corresponded to the middle section of the Potosí-Arica/Tacna route, whose oldest description locates six tambos in it (Vasquez de Espinosa 1948[1629]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vasquez de Espinosa 1948[1629]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Although ethnohistoric sources do not mention Qhapaq ñan segments in the Lauca region, numerous examples of Inca architecture can be found in the region and indicate its strong integration into the empire.

    “Although ethnohistoric sources do not mention Qhapaq ñan segments in the region, numerous examples of Inca architecture can be found in the region and indicate its strong integration into the empire (Gisbert 1994;Medinacelli 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gisbert 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Medinacelli 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    Of the 31 corridors in the study network, 25 have been partially surveyed on foot, covering a total of 293 km of accumulated road segments.

    “Of the 31 corridors in the study network, 25 have been partially surveyed on foot, covering a total of 293 km of accumulated road segments (Figure 6A).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Wari and Tiwanaku ancient movement patterns are materialized in linear distributions of settlements and rock art depicting llama caravans.

    “Indeed, Wari and Tiwanaku ancient movement patterns are materialized in linear distributions of settlements and rock art depicting llama caravans, which are believed to have been frequent between the cores and their peripheral colonies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The first roads were built on the Pacific Coast as early as the A.D. 1920s, while many highland rural regions were only connected to formal national road networks in the last decades of the century, with development still ongoing.

    “While the first roads were built on the Pacific Coast as early as the A.D. 1920s, many highland rural regions were only connected to formal national road networks in the last decades of the century, with development still ongoing (Bar Esquivel 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bar Esquivel 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisereasoning

    Vining and Williams (2020) propose that Tiwanaku macroregional movement corridors coincided with the pasture land distribution between the Altiplano and Moquegua.

    “For this reason, Vining and Williams (2020) propose that Tiwanaku macroregional movement corridors coincided with the pasture land distribution between the Altiplano and Moquegua.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vining and Williams 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Most archaeological research on road networks in the Andes has focused on specific historical contexts, such as the Qhapaq ñan, with relatively little work on the long-term dynamics of these networks.

    “In the Andes, most archaeological research on road networks has focused on specific historical contexts, like the famous Qhapaq ñan, with relatively little work done to understand the long-term dynamics of these networks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only 40% of sites were examined in situ.

    “often constrained to a basic diagnostic of architectural forms (with only 40% of sites examined in situ)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Marcone (2020) examined the degree to which the Qhapaq ñan layout may have influenced the structure and spatial pattern of current road networks in different Peruvian regions.

    “For instance, Marcone (2020) examined the degree to which the Qhapaq ñan layout may have influenced the structure and spatial pattern of current road networks in different Peruvian regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marcone 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    The Lauca Altiplano has been traversed by major historical routes such as the Qhapaq ñan and Potosí's, and it is still traversed by the transborder commercial route between La Paz and Arica.

    “As such, it has been traversed by major historical routes such as the Qhapaq ñan and Potosí's, and it is still traversed by the transborder commercial route between La Paz, Bolivia's capital, and Arica, a current major port in Chile.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Paleoclimatic data, based on Mount Sajama's ice core and the Polylepis growth rings, indicates relatively stable conditions since late pre-Hispanic times, with a significantly wetter period in the 19th century A.D.

    “Paleoclimatic data, based on Mount Sajama's ice core and the Polylepis growth rings, indicates relatively stable conditions since late pre-Hispanic times, with a significantly wetter period in the 19th century A.D. (Thompson 1995;Liu, Reese, and Thompson 2005;Morales et al. 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Thompson 1995 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Liu, Reese, and Thompson 2005 source
    • cites Morales et al. 2012 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Most territories are palimpsestic in nature, accumulating chronologically heterogeneous components, especially their road networks, which are generally composed of segments recently planned or formed, mixed with others inherited from the past territorial formations.

    “Most territories are palimpsestic in nature, accumulating chronologically heterogeneous components (Bailey 2007), especially their road networks, which are generally composed of segments recently planned or formed, mixed with others inherited from the past territorial formations that had previously developed in the same region (Saintenoy 2024;Saintenoy et al. 2025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bailey 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Saintenoy 2024 source
    • cites Saintenoy et al. 2025 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Historical maps usually present a biased portrayal of ancient territories influenced by the geopolitical context of their production and the intentions of their authors.

    “From a theoretical perspective, the research showed that historical maps usually present a biased portrayal of ancient territories influenced by the geopolitical context of their production and the intentions of their authors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Chajpuyo may have been an Inca tambo, supported by its regional location at the foot of a high mountain pass within a movement corridor where pedestrian surveys have identified several off-site Inca artifacts along the roads.

    “Could Chajpuyo have been an Inca tambo?This hypothesis is supported by the site's regional location at the foot of a high mountain pass within a movement corridor where pedestrian surveys have identified several off-site Inca artifacts along the roads.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The archaeological data reflects a decentralized road system with multiple itineraries of movement and potentially ubiquitous roadside logistical settlements which could correspond to almost any estancia.

    “Archaeological data reflects a decentralized road system with multiple itineraries of movement and potentially ubiquitous roadside logistical settlements which could correspond to almost any estancia, as arrieros (muleteers) chose rest stops based on their social network and geographical knowledge of the territories they traversed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The tambo is an Andean institution of pre-Hispanic origin that transcended the Spanish colonial conquest and played a role in the formation of Latin American republics.

    “the tambo is an Andean institution of pre-Hispanic origin that not only transcended the Spanish colonial conquest but also played a role in the formation of Latin American republics (Corcoran Tadd 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Corcoran Tadd 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Tambo was a very broad category of imperial settlement whose fundamental commonality was its connection to the Qhapaq ñan.

    “Indeed, tambo was a very broad category of imperial settlement whose fundamental commonality was its connection to the Qhapaq ñan (Espinoza Soriano 1973;Vaca de Castro 1989[1543]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Espinoza Soriano 1973

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Vaca de Castro 1989[1543]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Available data on the Chajpuyo Inca settlement suggests ceremonial rather than logistical activities, while Tamboqollo and Queñuatambo are small settlements more aligned with the concept of posta or chaskiwasi.

    “Available data on the Chajpuyo Inca settlement suggests ceremonial rather than logistical activities, while Tamboqollo and Queñuatambo, which were clearly part of logistical infrastructure, are small settlements more aligned with the concept of posta or chaskiwasi, which designate small infrastructure such as an isolated building (Hyslop 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hyslop 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    A comparative study of five tambos dispersed across the study network was conducted, with 37 m2 excavated through 27 test pits distributed among diverse structure types within each settlement.

    “A comparative study of five tambos dispersed across our study network was conducted.At each site, a functional and chronological analysis was carried out by examining the standing architecture, surface remains, and stratigraphy.To achieve this, a total of 37 m 2 was excavated through 27 test pits distributed among the diverse structure types within each settlement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The absence of pre-Hispanic materials at Taypitambo and Lacatambo suggests that these structures, which might resemble the Inca kancha model, likely do not have pre-Hispanic origins.

    “The absence of pre-Hispanic materials suggests that these structures, which might resemble the Inca kancha model (a rectangular enclosure composed of single-room buildings that face onto an inner patio), likely do not have pre-Hispanic origins.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both apachetas and refuges evidence the resilience of road architecture from pre-Hispanic times until the present, with significant deposits produced by transborder informal migration and commerce.

    “Thus, both apachetas and refuges evidence the resilience of road architecture from pre-Hispanic times until the present, with significant deposits produced by transborder informal migration and commerce.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
69 of 69

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Lauca Altiplano's aridity and low demography have permitted excellent archaeological preservation of ancient movement traces and infrastructure.

    “In this highland desert, the aridity (ca.400 mm of annual precipitation) and low demography have permitted excellent archaeological preservation of ancient movement traces and infrastructure.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Lauca Altiplano formed a macroregional corridor between the Pacific and the Altiplano despite its low settlement density and certain territorial marginality since pre-Hispanic times.

    “Historically, the Lauca Altiplano is interesting because, despite its low settlement density and certain territorial marginality since pre-Hispanic times, it formed a macroregional corridor between the Pacific and the Altiplano.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The current road network embodies its own history.

    “In order to research the history of the Lauca Altiplano road system, we have developed a method based on archéogéographie's theoretical postulates, which emphasize a regressive approach since, as an historical product, the current road network embodies its own history (Watteaux 2017).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Tambos can vary significantly in both architecture and function; their commonality lies in their association with road networks and mobility practices.

    “Tambos can vary significantly in both architecture and function; their commonality lies in their association with road networks and mobility practices.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Since the Colonial period, botijas have been systematically used to transport liquid goods, making their presence a strong indicator of a site's relationship to transportation networks.

    “Since the Colonial period, these amphoras have been systematically used to transport liquid goods, making their presence a strong indicator of a site's relationship to transportation networks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The archaeological record would preserve evidence of imperial investment in road infrastructure if it existed.

    “Thus, the archaeological record suggests that neither empire invested significantly in road infrastructure within our study network, despite the region's abundance of Inca sites and monuments and its central location along the Potosí Silver Route.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The local inhabitants' ethnographic memories are reliable.

    “A clear connection between Chajpuyo and the regional transportation and movement system is rooted in its recent history, as recalled ethnographically by several local inhabitants.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The absence of diagnostic Colonial artifacts at a site indicates it did not serve as a formal way station during the Colonial period.

    “The absence of clear early Colonial material culture is problematic, as it does not support the idea that Changamoqo served as a formal way station on the Potosí Silver Route, a hypothesis suggested by oral tradition and by both archival and archaeological evidence of its location along the itinerary between the Copataya mountain pass and Cosapa.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The caminos de herradura depicted by Risopatrón could be inherited from Colonial and even pre-Hispanic road networks due to continuity in movement and transport technology.

    “Considering that these caminos de herradura could hypothetically be inherited from Colonial and even pre-Hispanic road networks due to continuity in movement and transport technology, Risopatrón's maps provide an interesting starting point for a regressive history of the Lauca road network”
9 of 9

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Not all early colonial tambos were identified

    Minor

    The text says surveys identified all tambos mentioned in early colonial chronicles, but the Figure 8 caption says one of Vasquez de Espinosa's tambos was not identified.

  • Conflicting counts for the earliest route description

    Minor

    The paper says Vasquez de Espinosa's description locates six tambos in the Lauca Altiplano, but elsewhere says it details five stops within the Lauca Basin.

2 of 2

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 46

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  2. Andrews, J. 1920. Viaje de Buenos Aires a Potosí y Arica, en los Años 1825 y 1826, La Cultura Argentina. Buenos Aires: Administración general Vaccaro.
  3. Bar Esquivel, A. 2013. “Afectaciones Históricas a la red Vial Inca y la Necesidad del Estudio Documentario de Carreteras Para la Investigación y el Registro de Caminos Prehispánicos.” Cuadernos del Qhapaq Nan 1 (1): 32–51.
  4. Barraza Lescano, S. 2018. “El Tambo Andino Bajo el Régimen Colonial.” In Cristobal Vaca de Castro, Ordenanzas de Tambos (Cuzco, 1543), edited by S. Barraza Lescano, 7–34. Lima: Qhapaq Nan, ministerio de Cultura del Peru.
  5. Bauer, B. S., D. K. Smit, J. G. Blanco, and A. C. Rodriguez. 2017. “El Camino del Mercurio de Huancavelica a Potosi.” In In Nuevas Tendencias en el Estudio de los Caminos, edited by S. Chacaltana, E. Arkush, and G. Marcone, 379–398. Lima: Ministerio de Cultura, Qhapaq ñan Perú sede nacional.
  6. Berenguer Rodriguez, J., C. G. Godoy, C. S. Tohá, and C. V. D. Bello. 2020. “Qhapaq ñan II, Taller Internacional en Torno al Sistema Vial Inkaico.” Chungara, revista de antropologia chilena 52 (3): 377–379.
  7. Bergier, N. 1622. Histoire des Grands Chemins de L'empire Romain, Contenant L'origine, Progrès & Etenduë Quasi Incroyable des Chemins Militaires, Pavez Depuis la Ville de Rome Jusques aux Extremitez de son Empire. Où se Voit la Grandeur & la Puissance Incomparable des Romains; Ensemble L'éclaircissement de L'Itineraire D'Antonin & de la Charte de Peutinger. Paris: C. Morel, Impr. du Roy.
  8. Cieza de Leon, P. d. 1946[1553]. Crónica del Perú. México D.F.: Editorial Nueva España.
  9. Corcoran Tadd N. E. 2017. “Tambos and the Andean Longue Durée: Landscapes of Mobility in Far Southern Peru.” Doctoral dissertation Harvard University.
  10. Cremonte, M. B., G. Maro, and A. M. Díaz. 2015. “Acercamiento a la Producción y Distribución del Estilo Inca-Pacajes. Un Estudio Arqueométrico de las Pastas.” Chungara, revista de antropologia chilena 47 (3): 387–400.
  11. d'Orbigny, A. 1945. Viaje a la América Meridional. Buenos Aires: Editorial Futuro.
  12. de Lizárraga, F. R. 1906 [1605]. Descripción Breve del Reino del Perú, Tucumán, Río de la Plata y Chile. Edited by Ricardo Rojas, Biblioteca argentina. Buenos Aires: Librería La Facultad.
  13. Deleuze, G., and F. Guattari. 1980. Mille Plateaux: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2. Paris: Les Éditions de minuit.
  14. Durston, A., and J. Hidalgo. 1997. “La Presencia Andina en los Valles de Arica.” Chungara, revista de antropologia chilena 29 (2): 249–273.
  15. Espinoza Soriano, W. 1973. “Colonias de Mitmas Múltiples en Abancay, Siglos XV y XVI.” Revista del Museo Nacional 39:225–300.
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  18. Glave, L. M. 1991. “Tambos y Caminos Andinos en la Formación del Mercado Interno Colonial.” In Reproducción y Transformación de las Sociedades Andinas Siglos XVI-XX, edited by Segundo Y. Moreno and Frank Salomon, 285-348. Quito: Ediciones ABYA-YALA. MLAL.
  19. Gonzalez, C., T. Saintenoy, and B. Sillar. 2023. “Radiocarbon Dating Applied to the Architectural and Spatial Variability of Chullpas (Above-Ground Tower-Shaped Monuments) in Altiplano Carangas (Oruro, Bolivia).” PAST, The Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 105:12–14.
  20. 10.5354/0719-1472.2017.47682 · DOI
  21. Guaman Poma de Ayala, F. 1615. El Primer Nueva Crónica y Buen Gobierno. Copenhague: Biblioteca Real de Dinamarca.
  22. Hyslop, J. 1984. The Inka Road System, Studies in Archaeology. Orlando: Academic Press.
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  25. Lima Torrez, M. d. P. 2014. “La Presencia Inka y su Relación con las Poblaciones Locales en la Región Occidental de Bolivia: Los Casos de Carangas y Quillacas, Oruro.” In Ocupación Inka y Dinámicas Regionales en los Andes (Siglos XV-XVII), edited by C. R. Casanovas, 45–66. Lima: IFEA.
  26. Lopez Beltran, C. 2016. La Ruta de la Plata: De Potosí al Pacífico, Caminos, Comercio y Caravanas en los Siglos XVI y XIX. La Paz: Plural Editores.
  27. López, M., M. Rodolfo, and J. A. Ballivián. 2013. “El Qhapaq ñan y la Integración de la Provincia Charka.” In Aportes Multidisciplinarios al Estudio de los Colectivos étnicos Surandinos: Reflexiones Sobre Qaraqara-Charkas, Tres Años Despues, edited by A. M. Presta, 231–244. La Paz: Plural, IFEA.
  28. Majluf, N., and L. E. Wuffarden. 2010. Camilo Blas. Lima: Muse de Arte de Lima, MALI.
  29. Marcone, G. 2020. “Por las Rutas del Qhapaq ñan: El rol de los Caminos en la Construcción de la Historia y Territorio Peruano.” Chungará (Arica) 52:411–425.
  30. Marcoy, P. 1869. Voyage à Travers L'Amérique du Sud. Paris: L. Hachette.
  31. Merriman, P. 2018. “Roads.” In The Routledgehandbook of Mobilites, edited by P. Adey, D. Bissell, K. Hannam, P. Merriman, and M. Sheller, 196–204. London and New York: Routledge.
  32. Nuñez, L., and T. D. Dillehay. 1995[1979]. Movilidad Giratoria, Armonia Social y Desarrollo en los Andes Meridionales: Patrones de Trafico e Interaccion Economica. Antofagasta: Universidad Catolica del Norte.
  33. Pauwels, G. 2006. “Carangas en el año 1910: El Informe de Zenón Bacarreza.” In In Ensayos Históricos Sobre Oruro., 350–403. La Paz: IEB/ASDI.
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  38. Schavelzon, D. 2018[2001]. Catálogo de Cerámicas Históricas de Buenos Aires (Siglos XVI-XX), con Notas Sobre la Región del Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires: La Imprenta Digital SRL.
  39. Steinberger, S., and A. Webb. 2009. “La Ruta de la Plata de Potosí: Una Exploración Moderna de la Ruta Colonial de Plata más Antigua de Bolivia / La Ruta de la Plata de Potosí: A Modern Exploration of Bolivia’s Oldest Colonial Silver Route.” Washington University Undergraduate Research Digest 5 (1): 56–77.
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  43. Valenzuela, D., L. Briones, P. Casanova, I. Montt, T. Saintenoy, M. Crespo, and P. Mendez-Quiros. 2022. “In the Middle of Nowhere: Geoglyphs, Caravan Routes, Social Conflict, and the Visual Demarcation of Travel Routes Across the Northern Chilean Atacama Desert.” In Rock Art in the Landscapes of Motion, edited by P. L. Polkowski, and F. Förster, 109–130. Oxford.
  44. Villanueva, J. 2014. Moldeando la Vida. La Colección de Cerámica del Museo Nacional de Etnografía y Folklore, Según la Cadena de Producción. La Paz: MUSEF Editores.
  45. Von Hagen, V. W. 1955. Highway of the sun. NYC: Duell, Sloan and Pearce.
  46. Williams, P. R. 2017. “Una Perspectiva Comparada de los Caminos Wari y Tiwanaku: Los Antecedentes del Qhapaq nan Incaico.” In Nuevas Tendencias en el Estudio de los Caminos, edited by S. Chacaltana, E. Arkush, and G. Marcone, 30–47. Lima: Ministerio de Cultura, Qhapaq ñan Perú sede nacional.

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Related

Metadata

Authors
Saintenoy, T., Lima, P., Uribe, M., Carvajal, F., González, C., Crespo, M., Malvarez, M. F., Mendez-Quiros, P., Jofré, D., & González, F.
Affiliations
  • Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
  • Sociedad de Investigación de Arte Rupestre en Bolivia
  • Universidad de Chile
  • University College London
  • Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
  • Independent researcher
Corresponding author
Saintenoy, Thibault
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Field Archaeology
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2025-07-27
Volume
50
Issue
8
Pages
717-736
ISSN
  • 0093-4690 (ISSN-L)
  • 2042-4582
DOI
10.1080/00934690.2025.2534236
OpenAlex
W4412906502
Cited by
1
References
42
Citations by year
2026: 1
FWCI
2.58
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Field Archaeology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Universidad de Chile (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • HAL (submittedVersion)
Funders
European Commission (800617)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeology and Cultural Heritage
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Latin American history and culture
Keywords
movement networks, long-time behavior, Inca Empire, Spanish Empire, ancient infrastructure, historical maps, field survey

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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