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Randomized Controlled Field Trials of Predictive Policing
Open accessAbstract
The concentration of police resources in stable crime hotspots has proven effective in reducing crime, but the extent to which police can disrupt dynamically changing crime hotspots is unknown. Police must be able to anticipate the future location of dynamic hotspots to disrupt them. Here we report results of two randomized controlled trials of near real-time epidemic-type aftershock sequence (ETAS) crime forecasting, one trial within three divisions of the Los Angeles Police Department and the other trial within two divisions of the Kent Police Department (United Kingdom). We investigate the extent to which (i) ETAS models of short-term crime risk outperform existing best practice of hotspot maps produced by dedicated crime analysts, (ii) police officers in the field can dynamically patrol predicted hotspots given limited resources, and (iii) crime can be reduced by predictive policing algorithms under realistic law enforcement resource constraints. While previous hotspot policing experiments fix treatment and control hotspots throughout the experimental period, we use a novel experimental design to allow treatment and control hotspots to change dynamically over the course of the experiment. Our results show that ETAS models predict 1.4–2.2 times as much crime compared to a dedicated crime analyst using existing criminal intelligence and hotspot mapping practice. Police patrols using ETAS forecasts led to an average 7.4% reduction in crime volume as a function of patrol time, whereas patrols based upon analyst predictions showed no significant effect. Dynamic police patrol in response to ETAS crime forecasts can disrupt opportunities for crime and lead to real crime reductions.
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“Third, and most importantly, most studies fail to analyze contexts of reception, implicitly assuming -usually without empirical data -that police officers, judges, and prosecutors rely uncritically on what algorithms direct them to do in their daily routines (Harcourt 2006;Hvistendahl 2016;Mohler et al. 2015;Uchida and Swatt 2013).”
From Technologies of Crime Prediction: The Reception of Algorithms in Policing and Criminal Courts (2021) · cites this paper as Mohler et al. 2015
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“Based on these calculations, it was estimated that using predictive hot spot maps for 31 minutes per day for each hot spot would save the LAPD $17,258,801 per year vis-à-vis applying traditional hot spot mapping techniques by crime analysts, which would only save half as much (Mohler et al., 2015).”
From ‘Led by Intelligence': A Scoping Review on the Experimental Evaluation of Intelligence-Led Policing (2024) · cites this paper as Mohler et al., 2015
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Metadata
- Authors
- Mohler, G. O., Short, M. B., Malinowski, S., Johnson, M., Tita, G. E., Bertozzi, A. L., & Brantingham, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Santa Clara University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of the American Statistical Association
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-10-02
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 512
- Pages
- 1399-1411
- ISSN
- 0162-1459 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-274X
- OpenAlex
- W2232870322
- Cited by
- 381
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 69.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- escholarship.org
- Locations
- Journal of the American Statistical Association (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0968309, 1343123)
- Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (W911NF‐11‐1‐0332, FA9550-10-1-0569)
- Office of Naval Research (N000141210838, FA9550)
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-, FA9550-10-1-, FA9550-10-1-0569)
- Army Research Office (W911NF‐11‐1‐0332, W911NF, W911NF-11)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- predictive policing, epidemic-type aftershock sequence, crime prediction, crime hotspots, police patrol, crime reduction, hotspot mapping, criminal intelligence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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