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A preliminary profile of neuropsychological deficits associated with major depression
Abstract
A profile of neuropsychological deficits of clinically depressed (major depression) but otherwise unimpaired individuals is presented, based on a meta-analysis of all studies published since 1975 and meeting stringent methodological and sample selection criteria. Deficits are discussed separately for different cognitive areas in terms of mean size of deficit, variability between studies, variability of individual scores in depressed populations relative to that of controls, and expected proportion of depressed individuals scoring two standard deviations or more below the mean of controls. The neuropsychological deficits of individuals with major depression are shown to be consistent with a global-diffuse impairment of brain functions with particular involvement of the frontal lobes. Recent neuro-imaging studies also indicating frontal dysfunction in clinical (functional) depression are referred to. Both the severity and the profile of cognitive deficiencies in depression are postulated to be similar to those seen in moderately severe traumatic brain injury.
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“The impairments most commonly associated with MDD are in the domains of executive function, selective attention, and verbal learning [1, 3].”
In the citing paper
“Cognitive deficits are commonly reported by patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) [1, 2]”
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Atypical cognitive profile in patients with depression after myocardial infarction
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P: Psychiatry: Insights into depression through normative decision-making models
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Dannehl, K., Rief, W., & Euteneuer, F. (2019) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2350 · Cited by 16
Effect of the Survival Judgment Task on Memory Performance in Subclinically Depressed People
Nouchi, R., & Kawashima, R. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00114 · Cited by 16
“Depressed mood can change a way we feel and can change our memory performance (Burt et al., 1995; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLa cognition au cœur de la dépression
Polosan, M., Lemogne, C., Jardri, R., & Fossati, P. (2016) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/s0013-7006(16)30014-8 · Cited by 17
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“General cognitive functioning was estimated from the mean of two subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Third edition (WAIS-III): Picture Completion (PC) and Similarities (SI; Wechsler, 1999 ).”
MethodThe Role of Mindfulness and Emotional Stability in Error Detection
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“The results of poorer cognitive performance in drugfree patients with MDD in this study were similar to those of previous studies.(26) The findings of significant memory decline in patients with MDD supported the review by Buchanan et al.”
ResultTurano, M. T., & Viggiano, M. P. (2016) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2016.1244247 · Cited by 14
“It converges with the classical literature, which shows the relationship between depression and both memory and meta-memory processes (e.g., Veiel, 1997; Williams & Scott, 1988).”
ResultLansing, A. E., Plante, W. Y., Golshan, S., Fennema‐Notestine, C., & Thuret, S. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.01.014 · Cited by 18
“Second, substantial evidence suggests that PTSD and depression are also associated with executive function deficits (e.g., mental flexibility, problem-solving, attention; Austin et al., 2001; Polak, Witteveen, Reitsma, & Olff, 2012; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundGhormley, C. O., Basso, M. R., Candlis, P., & Combs, D. R. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.024 · Cited by 14
“Deficits involving executive function, working memory, and new-learning are especially common (Burt et al., 1995; Veiel, 1997; Elliott, 1998; Austin et al., 2001; Marvel and Paradiso, 2004).”
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“In a meta-analytic review it has been stated that the severity of these neuropsychological deficits is comparable to that observed in traumatic brain injury commonly classified as ‘severe’ [”
BackgroundNeuropsychological Assessment in Multiple Sclerosis
Hansen, S., & Lautenbacher, S. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000197 · Cited by 16
“Depression is commonly considered to have a moderate to considerable impact on several cognitive functions (Beblo & Lautenbacher, 2006; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundFahrtüchtigkeit und psychische Erkrankung
Brunnauer, A., Laux, G., Laux, G., & Geiger, E. (2004) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x.15.3.209 · Cited by 14
Chandler, D. A., Roach, A. E., Ellison, A. T., Burton, E. H., & Jelsone-Swain, L. M. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.09.010 · Cited by 16
Neuropsychologie affektiver Störungen
Beblo, T. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-08959-0_10 · Cited by 13
Why clinicians often disagree about the validity of test results
Green, P. (2001) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-2001-16407 · Cited by 13
“[19]) but this study, like most others of its type, did not rule out incomplete effort as one source of the apparent impairment on neuropsychological tests.”
Lubrini, G., Periañez, J. A., Lago, M. R., & García, A. F. (2012) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.5510.2012301 · Cited by 13
Die Relevanz neuropsychologischer Untersuchungen bei Depression im Alter
Beblo, T. (2002) · Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie · doi:10.1007/s003910200015 · Cited by 12
“Veiel HOF (1997) A preliminary profile of neuropsychological deficits associated with major depression.”
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Jähn, T. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-08959-0_16 · Cited by 13
Thibaut, P., Mwamuka, R., Nyamayaro, P. C., Rubin, L. H., Nakasujja, N., Langenecker, S. A., & Abas, M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.09.007 · Cited by 12
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Korsnes, M. S., & Ulstein, I. D. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science · doi:10.4236/jbbs.2014.43018 · Cited by 17
“Attention and short term memory capacity in depression has been found to primarily be associated with controlled, focused or effortful processing [35], similarly short-term memory retrieval in effortful attentional processing is also impaired in depression [8] [36] [37] while automatic processing only are affected und…”
BackgroundNeuropsychological impairment and psychosis in mania
Basso, M. R., Lowery, N., Ghormley, C. O., Ward, T. A., Purdie, R., Neel, J. L., Combs, D. R., & Bornstein, R. A. (2008) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390802304516 · Cited by 13
“The literature concerning neuropsychological function in unipolar depression suggests that inpatients are more severely impaired than outpatients (Burt, Zembar, & Niederehe, 1995; Christensen, Griffiths, Mackinnon, & Jacomb, 1997; Kindermann & Brown, 1997; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundCERAD-NP und Flexible Battery Approach
Jähn, T., Theml, T., Diehl, J., Grimmer, T., Heldmann, B., Pohl, C., Lautenschlager, N. T., & Kurz, A. (2004) · Zeitschrift für Gerontopsychologie & -psychiatrie · doi:10.1024/1011-6877.17.2.77 · Cited by 12
Der Beitrag der Neuropsychologie zum Problem der Differentialdiagnose Depression versus Demenz
Theml, T., Heldmann, B., & Jähn, T. (2001) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024//1016-264x.12.4.302 · Cited by 12
DREAMS BY PERSONS WITH MOOD DISORDERS
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“, 1997) and the degree to which executive functions are tapped by the task in question (Elderkin-Thompson et al., 2004; Veiel, 1997).”
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“…(e.g., executive function, attention, retrospective memory, and processing speed; Clark, Chamberlain, & Sahakian, 2009), particularly in areas related to strategic control (Henry & Crawford, 2005; Holmes & Pizzagalli, 2007; Langenecker et al., 2005; Quinn, Harris, & Kemp, 2012; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeuropsychological Outcome and its Predictors Across the First Year after Ischaemic Stroke
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Functional MRI study of feedback-based reinforcement learning in depression
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“Depressive symptoms often accompany learning disabilities, but the evidence for the mechanisms of impaired learning in major depressive disorder (MDD) remains less certain (Hans, 1997; Bender et al., 1999).”
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“Systematic research on the effects of depressive disorders showed that anterograde memory performance and executive functions are those domains predominantly affected in depression (2, 3).”
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“In particular, neuropsychological impairment occurs commonly in MDD, and the most frequent areas of impairment involve executive function, new-learning, working memory, and speed of information processing (e.g., Veiel, 1997; Gualtieri and Morgan, 2009; Clark et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe influence of prolactin response to d-fenfluramine on executive functioning in major depression
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Cognitive dysfunction and white matter hyperintensities in Fabry disease
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“Thus, our results confirm that information processing speed and executive function deficits in FD cannot be solely accounted for by a high prevalence of stroke or the presence of mood difficulties (see Veiel, 1997).”
Latent learning in End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)
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“…high depression levels have been associated with impaired verbal and non-verbal learning, concentration, attention and retention (for a review see Veiel, 1997 The correlations between age and errors in Phase 2, though insignificant, were negative in patients and positive in controls in both the…”
The effect of negative mood and major depressive episode on working memory and implicit learning.
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“Cognitive impairments in depression are most frequently noted on tasks assessing executive function, declarative memory, and attention (Veiel, 1997; Landro et al., 2001).”
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“…is taken as a whole, adults diagnosed with psychiatric disorders tend to perform worse than individuals without diagnoses (Basso and Bornstein 1999; Cassens et al. 1990; Kindermann and Brown 1997; Sackeim et al. 1992; Sherman et al. 2000; Sweet et al. 1992; Tancer et al. 1990; Veiel 1997).”
BackgroundCognitive function in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis under levothyroxine treatment
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“In addition, the general level of neuropsychological performance was poor as repeatedly reported in other neuropsychological studies (Christensen et al., 1997; Porter, Gallagher, Thompson, & Young, 2003; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Depression and Cognitive Impairment in the Elderly
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“Beyond mood symptoms, MDD greatly impairs cognitive functions, encompassing memory, attention, and executive functions, further worsening the quality of life in individuals with this disorder [3, 4].”
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BackgroundResultInfluentialBobrov, A. E., Krasnoslobodtseva, L. A., Mutnykh, E. M., & Kursakov, A. A. (2014) · S S Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.17116/jnevro201411411210-14 · Cited by 7
“Нарушения когнитивных процессов при большой депрессии оказываются сопоставимыми с проявлениями последствий травмы мозга средней степени, когда страдают целенаправленность и последовательность действий, а аффективные процессы становятся неподконтрольными волевым усилиям субъекта [19].”
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“, 1999), under reported mood symptoms (Burt et al., 1995; Veiel, 1997), inordinate side effects of medications (Seale et al.”
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“The association anxiety and depression with poor performance on tests of memory, attention, and speeded information processing is well-established in the neuropsychological literature (Calvo & Carreiras, 1993; Eysenck, 1989; Hartlage, Alloy, Vazquez, & Dykman, 1993; Veiel, 1997 ).”
BackgroundNeuropsychological Predictors of Trauma Centrality in OIF/OEF Veterans
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“Because of the known relationship between executive functioning and depression (see Veiel, 1997; Harvey et al., 2004), depression will be controlled for in analyses.”
BackgroundNeuroimaging Studies of Mood Disorders
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Changes in heart rate variability during TOVA testing in patients with major depressive disorder
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“[34] While these fMRI studies have reported cortical hyperactivity after the Stroop task, they have been designed as a block which could have resulted in different findings than our study that was based on an event-related design.”
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“Veiel (1997), for example, conducted a metaanalysis that suggested the cognitive deficits coinciding with depression may fall along a spectrum in which some patients may experience significant impairments while others present with no remarkable cognitive weaknesses.”
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“Hazardous use of alcohol has been associated with impairments in memory, attention, executive functions, impulsivity, verbal fluency and visuospatial functioning [10-16].”
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Pathophysiologische und neuropsychologische Aspekte depressiver Störungen
Beblo, T., & Herrmann, M. (2001) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024//1016-264x.12.4.264 · Cited by 5
Sleep and Aging: Insomnia in the Geriatric Population
Singer, C. M., & Nanda, F. (2007) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-60327-042-7_10 · Cited by 5
Berdzenishvili, E., Roinishvili, M., Okruashvili, M., Kenchadze, V., & Chkonia, E. D. (2024) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_136_23 · Cited by 4
“[9,10] In recent years, some neuroimaging studies succeed to show an impairment of brain functions among depressed patients, specifically in the frontal lobes, [11] which play an important role in cognitive performance.”
Affect and Memory in Real Life
Loeffler, S. N., & Peper, M. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000142 · Cited by 4
Pathophysiology of Cognitive Impairment in Depression
Bowie, C. R., Milanovic, M., & Tran, T. B. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813333-0.00004-4 · Cited by 3
Pain in Patients with Polytrauma: A Systematic Review
Dobscha, S. K., Campbell, R., Morasco, B. J., Freeman, M., & Helfand, M. (2008) · Cited by 4
Place et intérêt de l'examen neuropsychologique dans la dépression du sujet âgé
Baudic, S., Traykov, L., Rigaud, A., & Césaro, P. (2005) · La Revue de Médecine Interne · doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2005.04.030 · Cited by 4
Neuropsychologische Diagnostik bei Altern, Depression und Demenz
Kaschel, R. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-6253-8_4 · Cited by 4
Cognitive performance in depression: patterns and determinants
den Hartog, M. (2002) · doi:10.26481/dis.20021122mh · Cited by 4
Vierck, E., Porter, R., Spittlehouse, J. K., & Joyce, P. R. (2015) · International Journal of Psychological Studies · doi:10.5539/ijps.v7n4p119 · Cited by 3
“In addition, meta-analytic reviews have shown an effect of depression on memory performance (Kindermann & Brown, 1997; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundKhalily, M. T. (2009) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0790966700000434 · Cited by 3
Williams, P., Howard, Z. L., Ross, R. O., & Eidels, A. (2018) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12205 · Cited by 3
“This is a potential problem when comparing depressed versus control groups, because these long-term effects may be more prevalent in populations with depression (Paelecke-Habermann, Pohl, & Leplow, 2005; Veiel, 1997).”
BackgroundGedächtnisstörungen bei Depressionen
Konrad, C., Losekam, S., & Kircher, T. T. J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36993-3_19 · Cited by 3
Yoon, K. H., Moon, Y. S., & Kim, D. H. (2023) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-023-00433-6 · Cited by 3
“Unlike depression in AD, it has been widely suggested that late-life depression (LLD) without dementia could induce cognitive impairment in the elderly [64, 67, 69].”
BackgroundNeuropsychological investigation in mood disorders
Keedwell, P. A., Surguladze, S. A., & Philips, M. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511642197.029 · Cited by 3
Cognitive Complaints in Patients with Fibromyalgia Versus Older-Aged Women: Case Control Study
iliser, B. K. R. (2015) · African Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4172/psychiatry.1000242 · Cited by 3
Affektive Störungen — Neuropsychologie
Hautzinger, M. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-30887-3_10 · Cited by 3
Kognitive Störungen bei depressiven Patienten
Frasch, K., Bullacher, C., Neumann, N.-U., [, & ] (2003) · psychoneuro · doi:10.1055/s-2003-814707 · Cited by 3
Neuropsychologie affektiver Störungen
Beblo, T. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-72340-0_11 · Cited by 3
Diagnosing Depression in Later Life
Lawrence, J. M., Davidoff, D. A., Kennedy, J. S., & Ellison, J. M. (2008) · Medical psychiatry · doi:10.3109/9781420053302.001 · Cited by 3
Neuropsychologie affektiver Störungen: Eine selektive Übersicht
Gauggel, S., & Rathgeber, K. (2002) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024//1016-264x.13.4.301 · Cited by 3
Mood Changes and Disorders After Stroke
Bogousslavsky, J., & Carota, A. (2002) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780203908884.ch8 · Cited by 3
Lin, Y., Xu, C., Tao, Y., Sun, Y., Liyanage, B. N., Yue, W., & Shi, C. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07243-y · Cited by 2
Harshe, D. G., Shah, B., Shah, H., Shetty, N., Shenoy, A., Ramakrishnan, A., Cholera, R. M., & Kale, S. S. (2017) · Annals of Indian Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/aip.aip_37_17 · Cited by 2
“[2] Apart from mood and anxiety disorders, many studies[3-28] have demonstrated cognitive decline in pregnant women on subjective interviews as well as objective evaluations.”
BackgroundResultTrasolini, M., Serra, G., Iannoni, M. E., Andracchio, E., Apicella, M., Maglio, G., Menghini, D., & Vicari, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1395391 · Cited by 2
Kalkut, E. J. (2010) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Veiel, H. O. F.
- Corresponding author
- Veiel, Hans O.F.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1997-08
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 587-603
- ISSN
- 0165-0475 (ISSN-L)
- 1380-3395
- 1744-411X
- OpenAlex
- W2071401336
- Cited by
- 502
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 4.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, neuropsychological deficits, cognitive impairment, frontal lobe dysfunction
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Brain Injuries, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Space Perception, Speech, Verbal Learning, Neurobehavioral Manifestations
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