A Ladder Of Citizen Participation
Abstract
The heated controversy over “citizen participation,” “citizen control”, and “maximum feasible involvement of the poor,” has been waged largely in terms of exacerbated rhetoric and misleading euphemisms. To encourage a more enlightened dialogue, a typology of citizen participation is offered using examples from three federal social programs: urban renewal, anti-poverty, and Model Cities. The typology, which is designed to be provocative, is arranged in a ladder pattern with each rung corresponding to the extent of citizens' power in determining the plan and/or program.
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Arnstein's typology demonstrated that not all participation is of equal value and that tokenism dominated as the method through which most citizens likely participated in the policy process at the time of her original authorship.
“Her typology clearly demonstrated that not all participation is of equal value and that, at the time of her original authorship, tokenism dominated as the method through which the majority of citizens most likely participated in the policy process.”
From The Value of a Communitarian Approach to Public Library Board Governance: Rejecting Current Neoliberal Practice / La valeur d’une approche communautariste de la gouvernance du conseil d’administration d’une bibliothèque publique : Le rejet de la pratique néolibérale actuelle (2012) · cites this paper as Arnstein (1969)
Hart's Ladder of Children's Participation was published in 1992 and based on Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation first published in 1969.
“The classical example of the ladder model is Hart's Ladder of Children's Participation, 48 which was published in 1992 and based on Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation first published in 1969. 87”
From A systematic review of theories, models and frameworks used for youth engagement in health research (2024) · cites this paper as [87]
The strengthening democracy rationale flows from participatory and deliberative theories that perceive democracy as a process of building civic capital and stronger democratic institutions.
“The strengthening democracy rationale flows from participatory and deliberative theories that perceive democracy as a process of building civic capital and stronger democratic institutions (Arnstein, 1969; B. R. Barber, 2004; Pateman, 1970).”
From Between promise and practice: a scoping review of the democratic outcomes of youth participation in local governance (2026) · cites this paper as Arnstein, 1969
The participation-power paradox aligns with Arnstein's (1969) and Hart's (1992) foundational work on participation ladders and extends them by highlighting how participation outcomes are shaped by context and vary across dimensions.
“This aligns with Arnstein ' s (1969) and Hart ' s (1992) foundational work on participation ladders and extends them by highlighting how participation outcomes are shaped by context and vary across dimensions”
From Between promise and practice: a scoping review of the democratic outcomes of youth participation in local governance (2026) · cites this paper as Arnstein ' s (1969)
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- Authors
- Arnstein, S. R.
- Corresponding author
- Arnstein, Sherry R.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Institute of Planners
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1969-07
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 216-224
- ISSN
- 0002-8991 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2008251417
- Cited by
- 17,064
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1187 · 2025: 1177 · 2024: 1134 · 2023: 1123 · 2022: 1080 · 2021: 1124 · 2020: 1117 · 2019: 1065 · 2018: 817 · 2017: 750 · 2016: 728 · 2015: 691 · 2014: 681 · 2013: 618 · 2012: 569
- FWCI
- 103.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Institute of Planners (publishedVersion)
- BIBSYS Brage (BIBSYS (Norway)) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Planning and Governance
- Social Sciences › Public Administration › Public Policy and Administration Research
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Local Governance and Planning
- Keywords
- citizen participation, citizen control, typology of participation, urban regeneration, anti-poverty policy, Model Cities program, federal social programs, poor people, citizen power, participatory planning
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