Truancy: a look at definitions in the USA and other territories

Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn; Karikari, Isaac; Chen, Haiping; Wilka, Eric; Kim, Jangmin

doi:10.1080/03055698.2014.955734

Cited by 64Youth Substance Use and School AttendanceEducational Outcomes and InfluencesEducation Discipline and Inequality

Truancy: a look at definitions in the USA and other territories

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Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn, Karikari, Isaac, Chen, Haiping, Wilka, Eric, Kim, Jangmin·2015·Educational Studies

DOI 10.1080/03055698.2014.955734

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Abstract

There is no shortage of definitions for truancy. One state may house many different definitions and there are a variety of challenges arising from this fact. One of the most important to researchers, policy-makers and educators alike, is that because of the lack of uniformity and consistency, it is difficult to compile and ascertain the totality of the phenomenon. The lack of a consistent definition influences a wide range of outcomes including policy matters, financial resources and definitive responses and intervention strategies. This manuscript attempts to synthesise the literature through the examination of operational definitions of truancy in the USA and in other territories. In addition to these operational definitions, expert opinions from focus groups proposed an enhanced definition of truancy. The study is qualitative and uses focus groups and synthesis of the literature to frame the work. Findings are presented. The goal is to synthesise the literature, not in its entirety, but in an attempt to combine and inform the conversation on a definition of truancy.

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Truancy as a legal construct is highly variably defined across many jurisdictions.
“Truancy as a legal construct is also highly variably defined across many jurisdictions”
From Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1) (2019) · cites this paper as Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015
Among definitions that focused on TR as a behavior, the themes of 'intent' and 'concealment' emerged.
“Among the definitions that focused on TR as a behavior, the themes of”
From Differentiation between school attendance problems: why and how? (2019) · cites this paper as Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015
Some use intentionality to determine truancy while others focus on persistent absence, leading to interchangeable use of truancy and chronic absenteeism.
“Some use intentionality to determine the presence of truancy (e.g., deliberately skipping school) while others simply focus on persistent absence, explaining why truancy and chronic absenteeism are used interchangeably (Gentle-Genitty, Karikari, Chen, Wilka, & Kim, 2015).”
From Differentiation between school attendance problems: why and how? (2019) · cites this paper as Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015
There is dramatic variation in the way local and national authorities signal the presence of a SAP.
“At the same time, there is dramatic variation in the way local and national authorities signal the presence of a SAP (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015).”
From Differentiation between school attendance problems: why and how? (2019) · cites this paper as Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015
The term TR has a particularly negative connotation for some because it has been associated with delinquency and may foster a punitive approach to intervention.
“The term TR has a particularly negative connotation for some because it has been associated with delinquency (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015) and may foster a punitive approach to intervention (Lyon & Cotler, 2007).”
From Differentiation between school attendance problems: why and how? (2019) · cites this paper as Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015

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BackgroundResult
Towards a typology of occasional truancy: an operationalisation study of occasional truancy in secondary education in Flanders
Keppens, G., & Spruyt, B. (2017) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2015.1136833 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…based upon a literature review of operational truancy definitions and expert opinions from focus groups: Truancy is a student’s act of non-attendance evidenced by missing part or all of the school day without it being legitimately excused by school or per state law (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2015; 17).”
BackgroundInfluential
A Change in the Frame: From Absenteeism to Attendance
Gentle-Genitty, C. S., Taylor, J., & Renguette, C. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00161 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citation
Recording and Reporting School Attendance and Absence: International Comparative Views on Attendance Statistics in Sweden, Germany, England, and Japan
Kreitz-Sandberg, S., Backlund, Å., Fredriksson, U., Isaksson, J., Rasmusson, M., & Gren‐Landell, M. (2023) · ORBIS SCHOLAE · doi:10.14712/23363177.2023.9 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Development of Participation in and Identification With School: Associations With Truancy
Virtanen, T. E., Räikkönen, E., Lerkkanen, M., Määttä, S., & Vasalampi, K. (2020) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431620919155 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Risk and Influencing Factors for School Absenteeism among Students on the Autism Spectrum—A Systematic Review
Sasso, I., & Sansour, T. (2024) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-024-00474-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Stability of social support during school transitions: Associations with truancy and not completing upper secondary education in normative time
Virtanen, T. E., Vasalampi, K., Lerkkanen, M., Pelkonen, J., & Poikkeus, A. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101663 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Mattering; changing the narrative in secondary schools for youth who truant
Baskerville, D. (2020) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2020.1772962 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Over time this deficit view has been challenged and scrutiny of deficit terms began (for example, Fine and Rosenberg 1983; McIntyre-Bhatty 2008) and more recently assigned stereotypical labels in different ways (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2015; Jonasson 2011).”
Background
Reciprocal Relationships Between Perceived Supportive School Climate and Self-reported Truancy: A Longitudinal Study from Grade 6 to Grade 9
Virtanen, T. E., Pelkonen, J., & Kiuru, N. H. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2022.2042731 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Truancy was defined as skipping classes or school without a valid excuse (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015).”
Background
Absenteeism Interventions: An Approach for Common Definitions in Statewide Program Evaluations
Hobbs, A. N. M., Kotlaja, M. M., & Wylie, L. E. (2018) · Justice Evaluation Journal · doi:10.1080/24751979.2018.1517584 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A grounded theory study of family coach intervention with persistent school non-attenders
Tobias, A. (2019) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/02667363.2018.1518215 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Addressing Chronic Absenteeism in Middle School: A Cost-Effective Approach
Young, S. L., Sollose, L. C., & Carey, J. P. (2020) · Children & Schools · doi:10.1093/cs/cdaa009 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Prevalence of truancy among school-going adolescents in three South Asian countries: association with potential risk and protective factors
Hasan, M. K., Uddin, H., Younos, T. B., Mukta, N. A. H., & Zahid, D. (2023) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2023.2242480 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Nature of truancy from the perspectives of secondary students in New Zealand
Baskerville, D., & Loveridge, J. (2020) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2020.1834356 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“As a definition provides the parameters for managing truancy, a universal definition is the first step in the facilitation of better comparisons (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Indicators of inclusion in education
Mezzanotte, C., & Calvel, C. (2023) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/d94f3bd8-en · Cited by 18 · see citing works
School absenteeism, emotional engagement and school organisation: an international comparative approach
Gràcia, M. G., & Valls, O. (2023) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2023.2266722 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Adverse Childhood Experiences and Truancy in High School: An Analysis of Florida Adolescents
Boccio, C. M., Cardwell, S. M., & Jackson, D. B. (2024) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2024.2336194 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A Systematic Scoping Review on Research Focusing on Professionals’ Attitudes toward School Attendance Problems
Hamadi, S. E., Klippen, M. I. F., & Havik, T. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14010066 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The differentiation of family and school education: historical conditions and current tensions
Vanderstraeten, R. (2023) · Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy · doi:10.1080/20020317.2023.2277504 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Addressing sickness absence among adolescents and young adults: an evaluation of the Medical Advice for Sick-reported Students intervention
van den Toren, S. J., Franse, C. B., Vanneste, Y. T. M., Bannink, R., Lugtenberg, M., Mulder, W. C., de Kroon, M. L. A., van Grieken, A., & Raat, H. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09809-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Examination of risky truancy behaviors and gender differences among elementary school children
Barthelemy, J. J., Coakley, T. M., Washington, T., Joseph, A., & Eugene, D. R. (2021) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2021.1914265 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The absence of a clear and consistent definition of truancy has posed a serious challenge for school officials, researchers, and other advocates who work to prevent school truancy (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015; Vaughn et al., 2013).”
Background
Searching for Consistency in Attendance Data Recording, Reporting, and Utilization in the USA
Graczyk, P. A., Gentle-Genitty, C. S., Patnode, A. H., & Moulton, S. E. (2023) · ORBIS SCHOLAE · doi:10.14712/23363177.2023.6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citation
Addressing authorized absences: a school district’s initiative to examine prevalence and promote proactive attendance practices
Heyne, D. A., Verstraete, I., & de Wit, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1546046 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Building transformative school-community collaboration : a critical paradigm
Kim, J. (2017) · doi:10.7912/c27010 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Current State of School Attendance Research and Data in Canada
Whitley, J., McBrearty, N., Rogers, M., & Smith, D. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15080964 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
School Attendance: Terminology and Socio-political Considerations
Moore, D. A. (2022) · Mental Health and Attendance at School · doi:10.1017/9781911623151.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
School Refusal
Dalton, J., & Bacon, V. L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-51147-6.00002-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Who is allowed to stay at home during school hours? An analysis of school withdrawal
Kruithof, E. H., & Keppens, G. (2024) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2024.2369859 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Under the skin of truancy in Aotearoa (New Zealand): A grounded theory study of young people’s perspectives
Baskerville, D. (2019) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17136134.v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Prevalence and correlates of truancy in the United States post-covid-19: results from a national sample
Vaughn, M. G., Chen, J., Maynard, B. R., Bandaru, Y. S., & Schweiger, A. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108735 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Contribution of parental social support and self-control to student truancy behavior
Rahmat, C. P., Nirwana, H., & Netrawati, N. (2020) · Journal of Counseling and Educational Technology · doi:10.32698/01121 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Can improving the “academic buoyancy” of secondary school students improve their school attendance?
Anderson, S. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003201366-13 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Child labor: a critical discourse analysis
Karikari, I. (2016) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c2fk57 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Can We Increase Attendance and Decrease Chronic Absenteeism with a Universal Prevention Program? A Randomized Control Study of Attendance and Truancy Universal Procedures and Interventions
Berg, T. A. (2018) · Scholars' Bank (University of Oregon) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effects of Risk Factors on Belizean Adolescents’ Academic Behaviors and Grit after Prolonged Absence During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Vairez, M. R., Gomez, F., Gentle-Genitty, C. S., Quiroz, J., & Manzanero, O. (2022) · Continuity in Education · doi:10.5334/cie.41 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Studies continue to reveal the typology of school attendance problems, ranging from school refusal and truancy to school withdrawal and exclusion (Heyne, Gren-Landell al., 2019), and common definitions are still being disentangled (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015; Heyne, Gentle-Genitty et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Familie und Schule: Zur Innen- und Ausdifferenzierung des Erziehungssystems
Vanderstraeten, R. (2020) · Soziale Systeme · doi:10.1515/sosys-2020-0020 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Attending to Absentees: An Investigation of How Four Urban Alternative Schools Respond to Absenteeism
Birioukov, A. (2020) · uO Research (University of Ottawa) · doi:10.20381/ruor-24679 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Using a Dual-Factor Model to Understand the Mental Health of Students with School Refusal Behavior
Maupin, Z. D. (2021) · Chapman University Digital Commons (Chapman University) · doi:10.36837/chapman.000266 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Developing the organizational competencies to promote American elders' civic engagement
Chen, H. (2017) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c2/1203
Self-citation
School truancy and financial independence during emerging adulthood: a longitudinal analysis of receipt of and reliance on cash transfers
Collingwood, P. (2020) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2020.791
Truant Youth
Maynard, B. R. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32132-5_785-1
Truant Youth
Maynard, B. R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33228-4_785
The Perspectives of the Academic Staff and Students of the American University of Madaba (AUM) on Cyber-Truancy during Covid-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Solutions
Madanat, H. M., & Tarawneh, M. (2023) · Dirasat Human and Social Sciences · doi:10.35516/hum.v50i4.5759
Expressions of School Maladjustment
Israelashvili, M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009384216.011
Inter-class peer mentoring, truancy reduction and academic engagement in rural Nigeria schools: a pilot study
Nwosu, K. C., Nwikpo, M. N., Ezeonwumelu, V. U., Chioma, O., Alaribe, C. O., Orakpor, A. M., & Ezennaka, A. O. (2025) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-025-01046-1
Additional file 2 of Addressing sickness absence among adolescents and young adults: an evaluation of the Medical Advice for Sick-reported Students intervention
van den Toren, S. J., Franse, C. B., Vanneste, Y. T. M., Bannink, R., Lugtenberg, M., Mulder, W. C., de Kroon, M. L. A., van Grieken, A., & Raat, H. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13331889
Additional file 3 of Addressing sickness absence among adolescents and young adults: an evaluation of the Medical Advice for Sick-reported Students intervention
van den Toren, S. J., Franse, C. B., Vanneste, Y. T. M., Bannink, R., Lugtenberg, M., Mulder, W. C., de Kroon, M. L. A., van Grieken, A., & Raat, H. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13331892
Additional file 1 of Addressing sickness absence among adolescents and young adults: an evaluation of the Medical Advice for Sick-reported Students intervention
van den Toren, S. J., Franse, C. B., Vanneste, Y. T. M., Bannink, R., Lugtenberg, M., Mulder, W. C., de Kroon, M. L. A., van Grieken, A., & Raat, H. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13331886

Authors: Gentle-Genitty, C., Karikari, I., Chen, H., Wilka, E., & Kim, J.
Affiliations: Indiana University Indianapolis (US)
Corresponding author: Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn
ORCID: Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn
Kim, Jangmin
Venue: Educational Studies
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2014-09-15
Volume: 41
Issue: 1-2
Pages: 62-90
ISSN: 0305-5698 (ISSN-L)
1465-3400
DOI: 10.1080/03055698.2014.955734
OpenAlex: W2151346987
Cited by: 64
References: 87
Citations by year: 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3
FWCI: 13.70
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Locations: Educational Studies (publishedVersion)
Purdue University Indianapolis (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Youth Substance Use and School Attendance
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
Keywords: truancy, school absenteeism, operational definitions, intervention strategies, expert opinion, United States, cross-national comparison

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Truancy: a look at definitions in the USA and other territories

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