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Cited by 339Youth Substance Use and School AttendanceSchool Health and Nursing EducationChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Differentiation between school attendance problems: why and how?

Open access
Heyne, David, Gren-Landell, Malin, Melvin, Glenn, Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn·2019·Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
DOI 10.1016/j.cbpra.2018.03.006
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AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual review argues that school attendance problems (SAPs) should be differentiated by type—school refusal, truancy, school withdrawal, and school exclusion—while evaluating the alternative SRAS functional approach. It proposes refined definitions and the SNACK screening measure to support type-based identification.

Key findings

  • SAPs are heterogeneous and terminology is inconsistent; the paper proposes nuanced definitions for school refusal (SR), truancy (TR), school withdrawal (SW), and school exclusion (SE), and introduces the SNACK, a brief screening measure with 14 possible responses plus an open item (nonproblematic reasons 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14; SR reason 3; TR reason 4; SW reasons 5, 6, 7; SE reasons 12, 13).
  • Scientific support for differentiating SR and TR includes differing associations with internalizing and externalizing behavior: Bools et al. found half of TR youth had conduct disorder while none had an emotional disorder, and no SR youth had conduct disorder while half had an emotional disorder; Egger et al. found 5% of SR youth versus 15% of TR youth diagnosed with conduct disorder.
  • Overlap between SR and TR among youth with a SAP is reported as 5%, 9%, or 17%, meaning between 83% and 95% can be classified as SR or TR (or SW) rather than both.
  • The SRAS functional model links four functions to cognitive-behavioral treatments, but its four-factor structure is not consistently supported; some studies yield three factors, parent-youth agreement is limited, and the SRAS does not assess factors associated with SW and SE.

Methods

  • Conceptual/narrative review and synthesis of literature on SAP conceptualization, definitions, typology, and the SRAS functional approach; no primary empirical sample is reported for the review itself.
  • Draws on prior component, cluster, and confirmatory factor analyses and community, clinic, and education samples, including Havik et al.’s over 3,600 youth and Keppens and Spruyt’s cluster analysis yielding subtypes of 40%, 33%, and 27%.
  • Introduces the SNACK and notes a study under way administering it to parents via online or pen-and-paper format if school staff identified absenteeism during the preceding four weeks.

Limitations

  • The paper states that Kearney’s problematic absenteeism criteria include nonspecific criteria and that the 25% cut-point appeared based on expert opinion; it also states that the SRAS four-factor model is not consistently supported, that some studies yield three factors, that parent-youth agreement is limited, and that treatment utility support comes from case studies and a small nonrandomized controlled study.
  • The paper states that SNACK sensitivity and specificity are yet to be established and acknowledges that SR, TR, SW, and SE are not mutually exclusive categories and that typologies pose labeling problems.
  • Evident from the text: the proposed definitions and SNACK are not empirically validated in this paper, and no direct comparison of the SRAS approach and the SAP typology is reported.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.cbpra.2018.03.006

Cites

185 of 186 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 144 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    The 'traditional truants' subtype comprised 33% of youth whose parents did not know about the absenteeism and who spent time away from home.

    “The second largest cluster (33% of youth) comprised youth whose parents did not know about the absenteeism and who spent time away from home when not at school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keppens & Spruyt, 2017b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Consistent use of criteria for selecting youth with SAPs permits meaningful comparisons across studies and countries.

    “Scientifically, the consistent use of criteria for selecting youth with SAPs permits meaningful comparisons across studies and, by extension, across different countries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Parental (dis)approval of the absence was not found to influence the formation of the three clusters.

    “Parental (dis)approval of the absence was not found to influence the formation of the three clusters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keppens & Spruyt, 2017b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Terms for SAPs are used inconsistently.

    “Complicating matters, terms are used inconsistently.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Galloway, 1976 source

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    • cites Fantuzzo et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Bimler & Kirkland, 2001

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  • Premisecitation

    School attendance problems (SAPs) are heterogeneous with respect to etiology and presentation.

    “School attendance problems (SAPs) are heterogeneous with respect to etiology and presentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Heyne & Sauter, 2013

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    • cites Kearney, 2008a

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    • cites Maynard et al., 2012 source

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  • May combine two claims. 58
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 67
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Our examination of Egger et al. (2003) indicates that youth with both school refusal and truancy represented 5% of youth with a school attendance problem; 75% of youth with a school attendance problem were classified as truancy only and 20% as school refusal only.

    “Our examination of the study indicates that youth with both SR and TR represented 5% of youth with a SAP; 75% of youth with a SAP were classified as TR only and 20% as SR only.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Egger et al. (2003) source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    There was a small but potentially important change in item wording from 'skip school' in the SRAS to 'refuse school' in the SRAS-R, signaling a shift away from a common truancy-related construct to an alternative construct.

    “We also noted a small but potentially important change in item wording, signaling a shift away from a common truancy-related construct (”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    The third feature of SR-staying at home with the knowledge of the parents-served to exclude cases of TR that were held to involve the concealment of nonattendance from parents.

    “The third feature-staying at home with the knowledge of the parents-served to exclude cases of TR that were held to involve the concealment of nonattendance from parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some use intentionality to determine truancy while others focus on persistent absence, leading to interchangeable use of truancy and chronic absenteeism.

    “Some use intentionality to determine the presence of truancy (e.g., deliberately skipping school) while others simply focus on persistent absence, explaining why truancy and chronic absenteeism are used interchangeably (Gentle-Genitty, Karikari, Chen, Wilka, & Kim, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The all-encompassing term 'problematic absenteeism' is used interchangeably with 'school refusal behavior', even though the latter was originally intended to exclude school withdrawal.

    “Furthermore, the all-encompassing term”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2016

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The collective term 'school refusal behavior' is sometimes shortened to 'school refusal', yielding more confusion.

    “The collective term”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lyon & Cotler, 2007 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A shared understanding of SAPs is needed because inconsistencies and ambiguity are obstacles to the advancement of assessment, intervention, and scientific knowledge surrounding SAPs.

    “A shared understanding of SAPs is needed (Pellegrini, 2007) because inconsistencies and ambiguity are obstacles to the advancement of assessment, intervention, and scientific knowledge surrounding SAPs (Kearney, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pellegrini, 2007 source

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    • cites Kearney, 2003 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Among definitions that focused on TR as a behavior, the themes of 'intent' and 'concealment' emerged.

    “Among the definitions that focused on TR as a behavior, the themes of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The 'homestayers' subtype comprised 40% of youth and was likened to parent-motivated truancy (SW).

    “The”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keppens & Spruyt, 2017b

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Youth not attending school but engaged in alternative forms of education (e.g., home-schooling; online education) would not be regarded as displaying a SAP.

    “Thus, youth not attending school but engaged in alternative forms of education (e.g., home-schooling; online education) would not be regarded as displaying a SAP.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The long history of conceptualizing SAPs has led to a vast array of terms and definitions and different perspectives on classification.

    “The long history of conceptualizing SAPs has led to a vast array of terms and definitions as well as different perspectives on the most helpful approach to classification.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Criterion 3 of Berg's (2002) SR features formalized parental efforts to secure attendance, deliberately differentiating between SR and SW.

    “Criterion 3 formalized parental efforts to secure attendance, deliberately differentiating between SR and SW.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg, 2002

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Currently, both the narrow and broad conceptualizations of TR are found in the literature.

    “Currently, both the narrow and broad conceptualizations of TR are found in the literature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The 25% criterion in Kearney's (2008a) definition appeared to be based on expert opinion rather than studies showing that 25% is a meaningful cut-point.

    “Several shortcomings in Kearney's (2008a) definition of problematic absenteeism are its inclusion of nonspecific criteria (e.g., significant interference in routine) and the fact that the 25% criterion appeared to be based on expert opinion rather than studies showing that 25% is a meaningful cut-point for specifying the existence of a SAP.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2008a

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Berg et al. (1969) are credited with providing the first comprehensive set of defining features for SR, and these features formed the basis for what are now the most commonly used criteria for SR.

    “However, Berg et al. (1969) are credited with providing the first comprehensive set of defining features, and these features formed the basis for what are now the most commonly used criteria for SR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg et al., 1969 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Standard cut-offs can be established for judging whether interventions have successfully remediated SAPs.

    “Standard cut-offs can also be established for judging whether interventions have successfully remediated SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Havik et al.'s (2015a) study, internalizing behavior in the form of subjective health complaints was associated with both school refusal and truancy, but the association with school refusal was stronger.

    “In Havik et al.'s (2015a) study, internalizing behavior in the form of subjective health complaints (e.g., headache, stomachache, feeling tired) was associated with both SR and TR, but the association with SR was stronger.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Havik et al. (2015a)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    The mere fact that different terms have been used to describe different school attendance problem types suggests that each type has intrinsic characteristics demanding differentiation.

    “The mere fact that different terms have been used to describe different SAP types suggests that each type has intrinsic characteristics demanding differentiation (Torrens Salemi & McCormack Brown, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Torrens Salemi & McCormack Brown, 2003

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In some school districts, youth over a certain age do not need parental consent to be absent.

    “Second, in some school districts, youth over a certain age do not need parental consent to be absent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The identification of illegal permanent expulsion suggests that school staff may lack an understanding of attendance laws or that guidelines related to exclusion may be inadequate.

    “Illegal permanent expulsion has been identified, suggesting that school staff may lack an understanding of attendance laws or that guidelines related to exclusion may be inadequate (Children's Commissioner, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Children's Commissioner, 2013

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Differentiation between the main types of school attendance problems can benefit research in the field of absenteeism, aid efficient assessment, and promote effective intervention.

    “In a similar fashion, we argue that differentiation between the main types of SAP can benefit research in the field of absenteeism, aid efficient assessment, and promote effective intervention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    It seems that school refusal youth, more than truancy youth, are vulnerable to intimidation and seek refuge at home.

    “It seems that SR youth, more than TR youth, are vulnerable to intimidation and seek refuge at home.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When comorbidity was accounted for, conduct disorder was significantly associated with truancy but not with school refusal.

    “When comorbidity was accounted for, CD was significantly associated with TR but not with SR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    By making a judgment about school attendance problem type during initial screening, subsequent assessment of factors associated with the youth's school attendance problem could be expedited.

    “Instead, by making a judgment about SAP type during initial screening, subsequent assessment of factors associated with the youth's SAP could be expedited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bools et al. (1990) found that half of truancy youth had conduct disorder while none had an emotional disorder, and no school refusal youth had conduct disorder while half had an emotional disorder.

    “For example, Bools et al. (1990) found that half of TR youth had CD while none had an emotional disorder, and no SR youth had CD while half had an emotional disorder.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bools et al. (1990) source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Egger et al. (2003) found associations between school refusal and internalizing behavior but not between truancy and these behaviors.

    “Egger et al. (2003) found associations between SR and internalizing behavior (anxiety disorders, somatic complaints, being shy with peers) but not between TR and these behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Egger et al. (2003) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The distinction between school refusal and truancy is based on the notion that school refusal involves reluctance or refusal to attend in association with emotional distress; the absence of serious antisocial behavior; and the young person staying at home and/or not concealing their absence from parents.

    “The distinction between SR and TR is based on the notion that SR involves the following: reluctance or refusal to attend in association with emotional distress”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Egger et al. (2003), school refusal was not defined by the absence of antisocial behavior, and only 5% of school refusal youth were diagnosed with conduct disorder compared with 15% of truancy youth.

    “However, in Egger and colleagues' (2003) study SR was not defined by the absence of antisocial behavior, and only 5% of SR youth were diagnosed with CD compared with 15% of TR youth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Egger et al. (2003) source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reid (2014) referred to specific lesson absence and postregistration truancy.

    “In a list of types of TR, Reid (2014) referred to specific lesson absence and postregistration TR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reid (2014)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It appears that the anxiety-related component of internalizing behavior has a unique relationship with school refusal while the depression-related component is characteristic of both school refusal and truancy.

    “It thus appears that the anxiety-related component of internalizing behavior has a unique relationship with SR while the depression-related component is characteristic of both SR and TR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While there is no research data to indicate that school refusal youth benefit more from school refusal interventions than truancy interventions (and vice versa), it is logical that youth benefit most from interventions that target the risk and protective factors characteristic of the school attendance problem type in question.

    “While there is no research data to indicate that SR youth benefit more from SR interventions than TR interventions (and vice versa), it is logical that youth benefit most from interventions that target the risk and protective factors characteristic of the SAP type in question.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The notion of 'skipping school without a valid reason' is open to broad interpretation.

    “The notion of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to a report of the UK Children's Commissioner (2012), disciplinary exclusion ought to be a last resort in rare cases and it must be fair and transparent, consider the child's views, involve a quality alternative for the excluded child, and be legal.

    “According to a report of the UK Children's Commissioner (2012), disciplinary exclusion ought to be a last resort in rare cases and it must be fair and transparent, consider the child's views, involve a quality alternative for the excluded child, and be legal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites UK Children's Commissioner (2012)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lax parental supervision was significantly associated with truancy and not school refusal, and lower parental monitoring of absence was reported by truancy youth relative to school refusal youth.

    “Lax parental supervision was significantly associated with TR and not SR (Egger et al., 2003), and lower parental monitoring of absence was reported by TR youth relative to SR youth (Havik et al., 2015b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Egger et al., 2003 source

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    • cites Havik et al., 2015b

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Disciplinary exclusion may occur permanently (expulsion) or temporarily (suspension), and suspension may occur internally or externally.

    “Disciplinary exclusion may occur permanently (expulsion) or temporarily (suspension), and suspension may occur internally (the student attends school but not regular classes) or externally (the student is removed from school for a specified time; Costenbader & Markson, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Costenbader & Markson, 1998

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Birioukov (2016) raised concern about the term parentally condoned absence, and his concern has ramifications for the use of the term school withdrawal.

    “Birioukov (2016) recently raised concern about the term”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Birioukov (2016) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This could explain the fact that one of the subtypes they identified resembled SW.

    “This could explain the fact that one of the subtypes they identified resembled SW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Being bullied or teased and attending a dangerous school were significantly associated with school refusal but not with truancy.

    “Being bullied or teased and attending a dangerous school were significantly associated with SR but not with TR (Egger et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Egger et al., 2003 source

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    Premisecitation

    Kahn and Nursten (1962) noted substantial support for a relationship between school refusal and neurosis, and between truancy and conduct disorder.

    “In a summary of research comparing SR youth and TR youth, Kahn and Nursten (1962) noted substantial support for a relationship between SR and neurosis, and between TR and CD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kahn and Nursten (1962) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Galloway (1980) reported that many primary and secondary school students were absent with their parents' knowledge, consent, and approval and that parents were unable or unwilling to insist on return.

    “Galloway (1980) reported that many primary and secondary school students were absent with their parents'”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Galloway (1980)

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to Galloway (1982), absence occurs because of the family's difficulty in getting the child to school rather than the child's difficulty in being at school, the latter being characteristic of school refusal.

    “According to Galloway (1982), absence occurs because of the family's difficulty in getting the child to school rather than the child's difficulty in being at school, the latter being characteristic of SR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Galloway (1982) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The functional analytic model proposed by Kearney and Silverman (1990) comprises four hypothesized reasons for the maintenance of a youth's school attendance problem: avoidance of school-related stimuli provoking general negative affectivity, escape from aversive social and/or evaluative situations at school, pursuit of attention from significant others, and pursuit of tangible reinforcement خارجی

    “Kearney and Silverman (1990) then proposed a functional analytic model comprising four hypothesized reasons for the maintenance of a youth's SAP: (1) avoidance of school-related stimuli that provoke a sense of general negative affectivity, (2) escape from aversive social and/or evaluative situations at school, (3) pursuit of attention from significant others, and (4) pursuit of tangible”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney & Silverman, 1990

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The SRAS model is becoming increasingly prominent outside of the U.S. and has been employed or evaluated among youth in Germany, France, Italy, Korea, the UK, Turkey, Spain, the Netherlands, and Chile.

    “The SRASfoot_3 model is becoming increasingly prominent outside of the U.S. where it was developed.It has been employed or evaluated among German (Overmeyer, Schmidt, & Blanz, 1994;Walter, von Bialy, von Wirth, & Doepfner, 2017), French (Brandibas, Jeunier, Gaspard, & Fourasté, 2001), Italian (Rigante & Patrizi, 2007), Korean (Geum-Woon, 2010), UK (Richards & Hadwin, 2011), Turkish (Seçer, 2014),”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Overmeyer et al., 1994

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    • cites Walter et al., 2017

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    • cites Brandibas et al., 2001

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    There was a high degree of correspondence between classifications conducted by child psychiatrists and the classification of truancy or school refusal based on component scores, providing support for the validity of the differentiation.

    “There was a high degree of correspondence between classifications conducted by child psychiatrists and the classification of TR or SR based on component scores, providing support for the validity of the differentiation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Differentiation in the SRAS approach is not based on psychiatric diagnoses, so differential treatment can be applied without relying on a classification system like the DSM.

    “Differentiation is not based on psychiatric diagnoses, so differential treatment can be applied without relying on a classification system like the DSM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Walter et al. (2017) found that the three-factor model applied to parent data while the four-factor model applied to youth data.

    “In the second, Walter et al. (2017) found that the three-factor model applied to parent data while the four-factor model applied to youth data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Walter et al., 2017

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Classification via the functional analytic model may be limited to three functions associated with SAPs, calling into question the relevance of the four corresponding interventions.

    “Classification via the functional analytic model may thus be limited to three functions associated with SAPs, calling into question the relevance of the four corresponding interventions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Knollmann et al. (2013) cluster analysis yielded three groups: school refusers, truants, and school avoidance with mixed symptoms.

    “Cluster analysis yielded three groups: (1)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Knollmann et al. (2013) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The form of behavior of many youth with SAPs changes from one day to the next while the underlying reason for nonattendance remains consistent.

    “Another argument for the SRAS approach to differentiation is that the form of the behavior of many youth with SAPs changes from one day to the next while the underlying reason for nonattendance remains consistent (Kearney, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2007

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The school withdrawal and school refusal factors were negatively associated with conduct problems, underscoring differentiation from truancy.

    “The SW and SR factors were negatively associated with conduct problems, underscoring differentiation from TR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bools et al. (1990) cluster analysis found one cluster with majority school refusal and no truancy, a second with truancy and severe antisocial behavior and no school refusal, and a third with mostly truancy and no severe antisocial behavior.

    “One cluster contained the majority of SR youth and no TR youth; a second cluster contained TR youth displaying severe antisocial behavior, and no SR youth; and a third cluster contained mostly TR youth with no severe antisocial behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bools et al. (1990) source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Each SRAS functional condition is linked with a unique set of cognitive-behavioral treatment recommendations.

    “Each condition is linked with a unique set of cognitive-behavioral treatment recommendations (Kearney, 2008b;Kearney & Albano, 2007a, 2007b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2008b

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    • cites Kearney & Albano, 2007a, 2007b

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    The SRAS approach links SRAS functional conditions with cognitive-behavioral treatments targeting different reasons for SAPs.

    “Perhaps the most promising aspect of the SRAS approach to differentiation is that it links SRAS functional conditions with cognitive-behavioral treatments targeting different reasons for SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The functional analytic model could also be regarded as a complementary approach, whereby the school attendance problem typology and functional analytic model both contribute to our understanding of differences between youth with school attendance problems.

    “It could also be regarded as a complementary approach, whereby the SAP typology and functional analytic model both contribute to our understanding of differences between youth with SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The clusters differed with respect to morning symptoms, with the highest level observed among school refusal youth.

    “The clusters differed with respect to morning symptoms (e.g., reluctance, tears) and the highest level of these symptoms was observed among SR youth, corresponding with the notion that SR entails emotional upset about school attendance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Approximately one-third of SAP cases do not present with a DSM disorder, and when they do, comorbidity is common.

    “First, approximately one-third of SAP cases do not present with a DSM disorder, and when they do, comorbidity is common (Kearney & Albano, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney & Albano, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This correlation might be explained by the majority of youth having fewer than 5 absent days in 3 months, suggesting emerging school attendance problems rather than established school attendance problems.

    “This might be explained by the fact that the majority of youth had fewer than 5 absent days in 3 months, suggesting the presence of emerging SAPs rather than established SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The functional analytic model is sometimes presented as an alternative to differentiating between school attendance problem types.

    “It is sometimes presented as an alternative to differentiating between SAP types (e.g., Kearney & Albano, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney & Albano, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kearney (2007) reiterated the need to assess the function of SAPs based on data showing that measures of the form of internalizing behavior were not related to absenteeism while the SRAS functional conditions were.

    “Kearney (2007) reiterated the need to assess the function of SAPs based on data showing that measures of the form of internalizing behavior were not related to absenteeism while the SRAS functional conditions were.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A central shortcoming of classification systems for absenteeism is that any clear set of defining criteria would appear to exclude some children who in all other respects would be considered to be suffering from school phobia.

    “A central shortcoming of classification systems for absenteeism is that”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There was overlap between the categories, but the data was not best represented by one general factor of absenteeism.

    “There was overlap between the categories, but the data was not best represented by one general factor of absenteeism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lyon and Cotler (2007) presented a case for abandoning the idea that school refusal and truancy are different school attendance problem types, arguing that the division is artificial and impractical and the two categories are neither comprehensive nor exhaustive and overlap considerably.

    “Lyon and Cotler (2007) presented a case for abandoning the idea that SR and TR are different SAP types, arguing that the division is”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lyon and Cotler (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kearney (2002b) modified the 16 SRAS items to varying degrees and added 8 new items, yielding the 24-item SRAS-R divided across the four functional conditions.

    “Kearney (2002b) modified the 16 items to varying degrees and added 8 new items.The 24 items of the revised instrument (SRAS-R) are divided across the four functional conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney, 2002b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Based on Berg et al.'s (1993) study, 14 of 80 youth with school attendance problems (18%) could not be classified as truancy youth or school refusal youth.

    “First, based on Berg et al.'s (1993) study, which indicated that 14 of 80 youth with SAPs (18%) could not be classified as TR youth or SR youth, they claimed that definitions of TR and SR are unable to capture all youth with SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg et al. (1993) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Negative outcomes of disciplinary exclusion include high rates of dropout from school and involvement with the legal system.

    “Negative outcomes of disciplinary exclusion include high rates of dropout from school (Arcia, 2006;Johnston, 1989) and involvement with the legal system (Costenbader & Markson, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Arcia, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Johnston, 1989 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Costenbader & Markson, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Support for the treatment utility of the SRAS is based on case studies and a small nonrandomized controlled study, whereas large-scale studies are yet to be conducted.

    “It should also be noted that support for the treatment utility of the SRAS is based on case studies and a small nonrandomized controlled study, whereas large-scale studies are yet to be conducted (Heyne et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heyne et al., 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Factors associated with SAPs but missing from the SRAS include subjective health complaints, being bullied, sleeping problems, academic difficulties, thoughts of personal failure, teacher support, and parental management of the child's behavior.

    “Other factors associated with SAPs but missing from the SRAS are found in studies published since the development of the SRAS.These factors include subjective health complaints (Havik et al., 2015a), being bullied (Havik et al., 2015b), sleeping problems (Egger et al., 2003), academic difficulties (Maynard et al., 2012), thoughts of personal failure (Maric et al., 2012), teacher support (Havik et”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Havik et al., 2015a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Havik et al., 2015b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Egger et al., 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    SR is often conceptualized according to Berg's (2002) criteria.

    “As noted, SR is often conceptualized according to Berg's (2002) criteria.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    When consistent definitions are used across intervention studies, we stand to gain a better understanding of which interventions work for which specific types of SAP.

    “More specifically, when consistent definitions are used across intervention studies we stand to gain a better understanding of which interventions work for which specific types of SAP (Fantuzzo et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fantuzzo et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Differentiation between SAP types has value for the field.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Suspension is used disproportionately among minority groups and those from socio-economically disadvantaged areas.

    “For example, suspension is used disproportionately among minority groups (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003) and those from socio-economically disadvantaged areas (Hemphill et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hemphill et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Authors point to the complex or ambiguous wording of many of the items added to the SRAS to form the SRAS-R.

    “Second, authors point to the complex or ambiguous wording of many of the items added to the SRAS to form the SRAS-R (Gonzálvez et al., 2016;Heyne et al., 2017;Knollmann et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gonzálvez et al., 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Heyne et al., 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Knollmann et al., 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Some proactive motivations for avoiding school are addressed via SRAS items, but reactive motivations are not.

    “While some proactive motivations are addressed via SRAS items (e.g., preferring to spend time with a parent or with peers), reactive motivations are not (e.g., protesting against school rules).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Using more general terms such as 'pupil absenteeism' and 'chronic nonattendance' is an ineffective solution because these terms undermine the value of differentiation and may lead to a loss of helpful information when conducting assessment, planning intervention, doing research, and communicating about SAPs.

    “However, using more general terms such as”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The 0.5 criterion for a mixed functional profile was selected somewhat arbitrarily.

    “The 0.5 criterion was selected somewhat arbitrarily (Kearney & Silverman, 1999) and if it were larger (e.g., 1 or 2 point difference between the highest scoring conditions) then the extent of overlap among SRAS functional conditions would increase considerably.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kearney & Silverman, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Using the term 'child-motivated attendance problem' to refer collectively to SR and TR is concerning because it discounts the role of family, school, and community factors in SR and TR.

    “Using the term”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heyne et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The 'inability' aspect is not unique to SW; it overlaps with the inability that a parent of a young person displaying SR might have in getting their child to attend school.

    “The”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The SRAS was developed to assess just four functions of a SAP, all essentially focused on the young person (avoidance of negative affectivity or social/evaluative situations; pursuit of attention or tangible reinforcement).

    “As noted, the SRAS was developed to assess just four functions of a SAP.All of these are essentially focused on the young person (i.e., avoidance of negative affectivity or social/evaluative situations; pursuit of attention or tangible reinforcement).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    SW and SE are not covered in the SRAS model, so factors such as parent desire for support at home and inadequate school resources for accommodating youth with special needs are not assessed.

    “Furthermore, SW and SE are not covered in the model, so factors such as parent desire for support at home and inadequate school resources for accommodating youth with special needs are not assessed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The many characterizations of SW require synthesis to achieve a standardized definition.

    “The many characterizations of SW require synthesis to achieve a standardized definition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    SW has been characterized by the parents' influence on absence, ranging from opposition towards sending the child to school, through ambivalence about managing attendance, to inability to get the child to attend school.

    “SW has also been characterized by the parents' influence on absence, ranging from opposition towards sending the child to school (e.g., deliberately keeping a child at home; willful), through ambivalence about managing attendance (e.g., laissez-faire; lack of interest in child's education; irresponsibility), to inability to get the child to attend school.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent UK report indicated a bi-directional relationship between disciplinary exclusion (expulsion or suspension) and psychopathology.

    “A recent UK report indicated a bi-directional relationship between disciplinary exclusion (expulsion or suspension) and psychopathology (Ford et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ford et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    TR has narrow and broad meanings.

    “As noted, TR has narrow and broad meanings (Berg, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berg, 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Functional conditions of the SRAS are often found to be associated with measures of anxiety, calling into question the extent to which SRAS items measure the function versus the form of SAPs.

    “Indeed, functional conditions of the SRAS are often found to be associated with measures of anxiety (Heyne et al., 2017), calling into question the extent to which SRAS items measure the function versus the form of SAPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heyne et al., 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In the authors' view, SR youth who are afraid of attending school may also dislike school.

    “In our view, SR youth afraid of attending school may also dislike school.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    TR and SE may overlap if a young person begins to secretly absent themselves from school as a result of the school's inability to accommodate their needs.

    “Finally, TR and SE may overlap if a young person begins to secretly absent themselves from school as a result of the school's inability to accommodate their needs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sensitivity and specificity of the SNACK items is yet to be established.

    “The sensitivity and specificity of the items is yet to be established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The recent trend of referring to SR as 'school avoidance' blurs distinctions between SR and TR, given that TR is also a form of avoiding school.

    “Finally, the recent trend of referring to SR as”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The distribution of responses across the 14 reasons indicates whether the youth's absenteeism is characterized by nonproblematic absenteeism, by one SAP type, by a combination of SAP types, or by a combination of problematic and nonproblematic absenteeism.

    “The distribution of responses across the 14 reasons indicates whether the youth's absenteeism is characterized by nonproblematic absenteeism (e.g., a specialist appointment on one occasion and a religious holiday on another occasion), by one SAP type (e.g., reason 3 [SR] is endorsed for each absence), by a combination of SAP types (e.g., reason 13 [SE] is endorsed for one absence and reason 7 [SW]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    SR youth may experience emotional upset about having to attend a particular class that only falls on a certain day of the week.

    “SR youth may experience emotional upset about having to attend a particular class that only falls on a certain day of the week.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The SNACK is a brief instrument, in keeping with the need for pragmatic measures.

    “It is a brief instrument, in keeping with the need for pragmatic measures (Glasgow & Riley, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Glasgow & Riley, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Using the term 'school refusal behavior' to refer to so-called child-motivated SAPs is unhelpful because it ignores the differences identified between SR and TR and is used interchangeably with SR even though SR and school refusal behavior are different constructs.

    “Using the term”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The absence of the truant tends to be intermittent and for short intervals of a day or so, whereas the school-refusing child absents himself for days, weeks, or even months at a time.

    “Millar (1961) noted that”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Millar, 1961 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The term TR has a particularly negative connotation for some because it has been associated with delinquency and may foster a punitive approach to intervention.

    “The term TR has a particularly negative connotation for some because it has been associated with delinquency (Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015) and may foster a punitive approach to intervention (Lyon & Cotler, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gentle-Genitty et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lyon & Cotler, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The implication that parents of TR youth put pressure on their children to attend school has never been specified as a criterion for TR.

    “The implication that parents of TR youth put pressure on their children to attend school has never been specified as a criterion for TR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Birioukov's suggestion that 'voluntary absenteeism' replace the term TR would be problematic because he was referring to the broader definition of TR.

    “Birioukov's suggestion that”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Based on input from experts in the US, UK, Australia, and Europe, the SNACK was structured so that key constructs would remain constant while national and cultural differences could be accounted for in the examples.

    “Based on input from experts in the US, UK, Australia, and Europe, the SNACK was structured so that the key constructs would remain constant (e.g., reason is “absence related to a religious holiday or cultural observance”) while national and cultural differences could be accounted for in the examples (e.g., Chinese New Year or a Jewish holiday).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Reasons and associated examples in the SNACK were based on features of each SAP type emanating from the authors' literature review.

    “Reasons and associated examples were based on features of each SAP type emanating from our literature review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A review of indicated interventions for TR revealed that court-based interventions are uncommon and that nonpunitive school-based interventions for TR often include mentor relationships with teachers, peer support and tutoring, the provision of praise and preferred reinforcements, and focusing on the individual needs of students in small group settings.

    “However, a review of indicated interventions for TR revealed that court-based interventions are uncommon and that nonpunitive school-based interventions for TR often include mentor relationships with teachers, peer support and tutoring, the provision of praise and preferred reinforcements, and focusing on the individual needs of students in small group settings (Maynard et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maynard et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    TR youth's preference for more appealing activities outside of school may stem from lack of interest in schoolwork, which is likely associated with the educational difficulties frequently associated with TR.

    “The TR youth's preference for more appealing activities outside of school (Elliott, 1999;Havik et al., 2015a;Kearney, 2008c) may well stem from the lack of interest in schoolwork, which is likely associated with the educational difficulties frequently associated with TR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Elliott, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Havik et al., 2015a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kearney, 2008c

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In all SW cases, the youth's presence at home may fulfil some benefit(s) for the parent(s) or family, either overt or covert.

    “In all SW cases (i.e., irrespective of the cooccurrence of SR), the youth's presence at home may fulfil some benefit(s) for the parent(s) or family, either overt (e.g., helping out at home) or covert (e.g., a parent is freed from the social obligation of securing their child's attendance at school).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These cases reflect some criteria for TR (absence without permission of school authorities) and SW (absence not concealed from parents), while not reflecting another criterion for TR (typically concealing absence from parents).

    “These cases reflect some of the criteria for TR (i.e., absence without the permission of school authorities) and SW (i.e., absence is not concealed from the parents), while not reflecting another criterion for TR (i.e., typically concealing the absence from parents).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is reasonably good consensus on the differences between SR and TR and differentiation is generally regarded as easy.

    “There is reasonably good consensus on the differences between SR and TR (Berecz, 1968) and differentiation is generally regarded as easy (Berg et al., 1969).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Berecz, 1968 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Berg et al., 1969 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    SR and SE may overlap if the young person becomes emotionally distressed about attending school because of the school's exclusionary practices.

    “Similarly, SR and SE may overlap if the young person becomes emotionally distressed about attending school because of the school's exclusionary practices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Typologies pose problems such as labeling.

    “and that typologies pose problems such as labeling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For practitioners, the predominant function of the SNACK is to support efficient identification of the type(s) of SAP in a given case, to facilitate more focused assessment, in turn supporting case conceptualization and intervention.

    “For practitioners, the predominant function of the SNACK is to support efficient identification of the type(s) of SAP in a given case, to facilitate more focused assessment, in turn supporting case conceptualization and intervention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The SNACK screening measure may be useful in the process of differentiating by SAP type.

    “The SNACK screening measure may be useful in the process of differentiating by SAP type.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The SNACK is the first measure to simultaneously screen for the presence of SR, TR, SW, and SE, as well as nonproblematic absenteeism.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Research and clinical opinion suggest that further development of the SRAS functional model is warranted to account for factors not currently addressed in the model.

    “Regarding the SRAS functional model, research and clinical opinion suggest that further development is warranted to account for factors not currently addressed in the model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    There are currently two main schools of thought regarding differentiation between SAPs; one advocates the relevance of a SAP typology and the other advocates the functional analytic model based on the SRAS.

    “There are currently two main schools of thought regarding differentiation between SAPs; one advocates the relevance of a SAP typology and the other advocates the functional analytic model based on the SRAS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The SNACK does not point to specific interventions in the way that the SRAS does.

    “The SNACK does not point to specific interventions in the way that the SRAS does.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
109 of 109

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    School is a central context for development.

    “S CHOOL is a central context for development.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Temporary absenteeism is common and often not problematic.

    “The 2-week criterion was applied because temporary absenteeism is common and often not problematic.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Differentiation between SAP types has value for the field.

    “Assuming that differentiation between SAP types has value for the field, it is essential to have shared definitions of SR, TR, SW, and SE.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The SNACK is the first measure to simultaneously screen for the presence of SR, TR, SW, and SE, as well as nonproblematic absenteeism.

    “This is the first measure to simultaneously screen for the presence of SR, TR, SW, and SE, as well as nonproblematic absenteeism.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 188 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Brandibas, 2001, Evaluation des modes de refus de l’école: Validation française de la SRAS (School Refusal Assessment Scale) [School refusal evaluation: French validation of SRAS], Psychologie et Psychometrie, 22, 45
  2. Carroll, 1986, Parental factors in primary school pupil absenteeism and their possible implications for educational psychologists, Educational and Child Psychology, 3, 202
  3. Frick, 1964, School phobia: A critical review of the literature, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Review of Behavior and Development, 10, 361
  4. McKay-Brown, 2018, Re-engaging severe school refusers: A collaborative home-school-clinic approach in Australia, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
  5. Morgan, 1959, Children who refuse to go to school: Observations on school anxiety, The Medical Officer, 102, 221
  6. Overmeyer, 1994, Kindheit und Entwicklung, 3, 238
  7. Partridge, 1939, Truancy, British Journal of Psychiatry, 85, 45
  8. Rigante, 2007, Il rifiuto scolare [The school refusal], Cognitivismo Clinico, 4, 124

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Heyne, D., Gren-Landell, M., Melvin, G., & Gentle-Genitty, C.
Affiliations
  • Leiden University (NL)
  • Monash University (AU)
  • Indiana University (US)
Corresponding author
Heyne, David
ORCID
Venue
Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2019-02
Volume
26
Issue
1
Pages
8-34
ISSN
1077-7229 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cbpra.2018.03.006
OpenAlex
W2806053504
Cited by
339
References
188
Citations by year
2026: 66 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 5
FWCI
70.68
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Cognitive and Behavioral Practice (publishedVersion)
  • Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
  • Purdue University Indianapolis (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Youth Substance Use and School Attendance
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › School Health and Nursing Education
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords
school attendance problems, school refusal, truancy, school withdrawal, school exclusion, conceptual history

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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