The Impact of Hot Spots Policing on Collective Efficacy: Findings from a Randomized Field Trial

“Residents may also develop an expectation that other neighbors will also exert influence and control in an effort to support the behavioral expectations needed to achieve social order (Coleman, 1988).”

“Furthermore, Sargeant, Wickes, and Mazerolle’s (2013) in-depth interviews with residents living in a high crime, low income, and low collective efficacy neighborhood in Australia suggested that a strong police enforcement presence in an area could increase the proportion of negative interactions between the police and…”

“The random intercepts account for the nested nature of the data, including repeated measures of individuals over time, addresses within hot spots, and blocking on North County precinct during the sampling (See Gelman & Hill, 2007, p. 275).”

“…examined Part I and Part II crime incidents between December 2010 and November 2011 using kernel density with Roberts Cross and Getis Ord GI*(Ord & Getis, 1995) to identify spatial clustering of incidents and then also assessing counts at street segments to verify crime concentrations in…”

“Furthermore, collective efficacy can mediate the relationship between disadvantage and crime (Browning et al., 2004; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999).”

“, Ferguson & Mindel, 2007 had a 33% response rate, Chermak, McGarrell, & Weiss, 2001 had a 31% response rate and a 49% cooperation rate, while Hinkle et al., 2013 had a 46.1% cooperation rate). Pashea and Kochel (2016) and Weiss and Bailar (2002) discuss the difficulties of conducting surveys in high crime areas, incl…”

“…surveys in high crime areas, including language barriers, residential mobility, distrust of strangers and government, vacancies, safety issues, etc. Groves and Couper (1998) report that nonresponse is highest amongst the lowest income categories, which describes those living in areas of high crime…”

“Views about the legitimacy of police may also be important (Silver & Miller, 2004; Tyler & Fagan, 2008; Wells, Schafer, Varano, & Bynum, 2006) found that higher satisfaction with police was associated with more informal social control and an increased willingness among residents to address…”

“Over the last two decades, hot spots policing has emerged as one of the most widely used evidence based practices in policing (Sherman & Weisburd, 1995; Weisburd & Telep, 2014) It has been widely recognized as an effective approach for reducing crime and disorder, and reviews over the last decade…”

“…to consider whether crime control programs of the police also help communities, especially disadvantaged communities, develop collective efficacy (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003; Sampson, 2002) such that informal social control may be applied to address a variety of problem behaviors (Wickes, Hipp,…”

“…equivalence across the treatment groups at baseline and is designed to account for the effects of nuisance variables (Cook & Campbell, 1979), yet this may not work as well with a small number of subjects (or in this case 71 hot spots randomly assigned to treat-ment groups) (Efron, 1971; Hsu, 1989).”

“…baseline, a 7% decline in calls for service in PS areas compared to baseline, and no change in the SPP areas (Kochel, Burruss, & Weisburd, 2015), residents were more inclined to take action to address problems (Hunter, 1985; Skogan, 1989; Bursik & Grasmick, 1993; Carr, 2003; Silver & Miller, 2004).”

“See Cohen, Cohen, Aiken, and West (1999) for a detailed discussion of the value of POMP as a meaningful measurement unit for the social sciences.”

“Over the last two decades, hot spots policing has emerged as one of the most widely used evidence based practices in policing (Sherman & Weisburd, 1995; Weisburd & Telep, 2014) It has been widely recognized as an effective approach for reducing crime and disorder, and reviews over the last decade by the National Acade…”

“…surveys in high crime areas, including language barriers, residential mobility, distrust of strangers and government, vacancies, safety issues, etc. Groves and Couper (1998) report that nonresponse is highest amongst the lowest income categories, which describes those living in areas of high…”

“We identified a broad range from about 90 days (Taylor, Koper & Woods, 2011) to 15 months (Weisburd & Green, 1995).”

“While initially portrayed more as a product of friendship networks, subsequent research has shown that engagement rather than friendship can be sufficient (Bellair, 1997; Sampson, 2008).”

“Furthermore, collective efficacy can mediate the relationship between disadvantage and crime (Browning et al., 2004; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999).”

“…2017) and the Campbell Collaboration (Braga, Papachristos, & Hureau, 2012) have concluded that hot spots policing approaches of different types can be an effective police response to crime at hot spots, and that crime reductions do not lead to displacement to nearby areas (Weisburd et al., 2006).”

“In areas with much physical disorder, past research has found it is difficult for social cohesion to thrive (Markowitz, Bellair, Liska, & LIU, 2001).”

“When conducted in partnership with members of the neighborhood, police efforts at problem solving may provide an opportunity for residents to interact with each other and facilitate social cohesion (Scott, 2002; Skogan & Hartnett, 1997).”

“Conversely, (Gill et al., 2014) concluded the opposite, that community policing approaches have little effect on fear of crime—the odds ratio across the ten studies included in the analysis was positive but not statistically significant.”

“For example, Taylor (1997, 1998) argues that such micro geographic units function as “be-havior settings” (Wicker, 1987, p. 614).”

“Following the Koper Curve (Koper, 1995; Telep et al., 2014), officers were asked to implement 11–15 min extra patrols.”

“Pattillo (1998) found that neighborhood ties are associated with residents directly intervening with problems.”

“First, police presence may help reduce fear of crime and thus reduce the risk of withdrawal and subsequent lack of informal social control (Johnston, 2001; Moore & Trojanowicz, 1988; Morenoff, Sampson, & Raudenbush, 2001; Trojanowicz & Baldwin, 1982; Silverman & Della-Giustina, 2001). A systematic literature review co…”

“One benefit to mixed effects regression analysis over other multivariate techniques is that it does not require a balanced design to produce valid results, it makes use of all available data (Wu, 2009).”

“…informal social control behaviors by signaling and reinforcing informal norms affirm-ing residents’ efforts at informal social control (Kochel, 2012; LaFree, 1998) or providing an environment whereby residents feel safe enough to take action — empowering residents to exert informal social control…”

“Views about the legitimacy of police may also be important (Silver & Miller, 2004; Tyler & Fagan, 2008; Wells, Schafer, Varano, & Bynum, 2006) found that higher satisfaction with police was associated with more informal social control and an increased willingness among residents to address…”

“While initially portrayed more as a product of friendship networks, subsequent research has shown that engagement rather than friendship can be sufficient (Bellair, 1997; Sampson, 2008).”

“…are also consistent with other past research that found an association between police presence and accessibility and informal social control (Ferguson & Mindel, 2007; Scott, 2002) It would seem that DP strategies with limited enforcement actions (See Sargeant et al., 2013), perhaps…”

“Braga ( 2002) and Braga and Weisburd (2010) focus on what may be called community problem solving, or efforts that specifically look to involve the community in problem solving efforts.”

“This finding has been robust across different contexts (Kochel, Parks, & Mastrofski, 2013; Mazerolle et al., 2010; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999; Sampson et al., 1997).”

“We identified a broad range from about 90 days (Taylor, Koper & Woods, 2011) to 15 months (Weisburd & Green, 1995).”

“This finding has been robust across different contexts (Kochel, Parks, & Mastrofski, 2013; Mazerolle et al., 2010; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999; Sampson et al., 1997).”

“Braga ( 2002) and Braga and Weisburd (2010) focus on what may be called community problem solving, or efforts that specifically look to involve the community in problem solving efforts.”

“Non-response among a homogenous sample is less problematic for applying inferential statistics than a more heterogeneous sample, because non-respondents are more similar to respondents (Mohadjer & Choudhry, 2002; Oberwittler & Wikstro¨m, 2009).”

“Thus, given that hot spots policing has demonstrated effectiveness against crime (Braga et al., 2012), without long term harm to public perceptions of police (Kochel & Weisburd, 2017), the further benefit to collective efficacy presents a strong case for its widespread use by police to improve…”

“Following the Koper Curve (Koper, 1995; Telep et al., 2014), officers were asked to implement 11–15 min extra patrols.”

“…crime control programs of the police also help communities, especially disadvantaged communities, develop collective efficacy (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003; Sampson, 2002) such that informal social control may be applied to address a variety of problem behaviors (Wickes, Hipp, Sargeant, & Homel, 2013).”

“However, the nature of that intervention (e.g., collective supervision of young children versus teens versus calling police) might vary based on the nature of the social ties (Carr, 2003).”

“Weisburd, Groff, and Yang (2014) for example, find that collective efficacy, as measured by the frequency of voting behavior, is strongly related to crime at hot spots.”

“Even in a developing nation, Kochel (2012, 2013) found that communities that reported that police delivered quality and competent police services and had lower levels of police misconduct reported more collective efficacy and less crime.”

“The cooperation hypothesis asserts that when police are a more capable and supportive resource to neighborhoods, residents will be more inclined to take collective action to address problems (Skogan, 1989).”

“The only study we found that uses longitudinal data to study these neighborhood processes, Kochel ( 2017), found that over time, greater police competence is associated with greater neighborhood collective efficacy, and also that more collectively efficacious neighborhoods reported subsequently…”

“…equivalence across the treatment groups at baseline and is designed to account for the effects of nuisance variables (Cook & Campbell, 1979), yet this may not work as well with a small number of subjects (or in this case 71 hot spots randomly assigned to treat-ment groups) (Efron, 1971; Hsu, 1989).”

“Weisburd et al. (2014) argue that the geographies of crime”

“That did not occur in Redlands, but was an outcome in our study (see Kochel & Weisburd, 2017).”

“First, police presence may help reduce fear of crime and thus reduce the risk of withdrawal and subsequent lack of informal social control (Johnston, 2001; Moore & Trojanowicz, 1988; Morenoff, Sampson, & Raudenbush, 2001; Trojanowicz & Baldwin, 1982; Silverman & Della-Giustina, 2001).”

“We draw from collective efficacy theory and the cooperation hypothesis to outline the conceptual process of how neighborhoods may develop collective efficacy and the mechanisms through which police may help foster it (Scott, 2002).”

“First, police presence may help reduce fear of crime and thus reduce the risk of withdrawal and subsequent lack of informal social control (Johnston, 2001; Moore & Trojanowicz, 1988; Morenoff, Sampson, & Raudenbush, 2001; Trojanowicz & Baldwin, 1982; Silverman & Della-Giustina, 2001).”

“More recently, Sargeant (2015) and Sargeant et al. (2013) found that people are more willing to intervene when they see police as effective and legitimate.”

“(Renauer, 2007, p. 66) A possible explanation is that the community meetings may have been more about residents airing concerns and police reporting on what they have done to address community concerns, thus, residents may be conditioned to let police take care of the problems rather than seeking…”

“…secondary outcome suggests what several past correlational studies have reported, that faith in the capabilities and competence of police and the effectiveness of police at reducing crime can improve informal social control (Kochel, 2012, 2017; Sargeant, 2015; Sargeant et al., 2013; Warner, 2014).”

“We do not disagree with Gau (2014) who advocates that combining these unique constructs into one may incorrectly portray the social processes involved, but as much of the crime control evidence is based on the combined measure of collective efficacy, we assess the outcomes both as unique and a combined construct.”

“Furthermore, people living in high crime areas tend to be aware of their vulnerability (Kershaw et al., 2000), and feeling at risk for victimization, experiencing it (May & Dunaway, 2000) or being witness to it (Johnston, 2001) promotes fear, and fear can lead to withdrawal.”

“…with limited enforcement actions (See Sargeant et al., 2013), perhaps especially those that include foot patrol over merely vehicle patrols (Salmi, Gro¨nroos, & Keskinen, 2004), focused on crime hot spots can instill confidence in police responsiveness to the community, are a resource…”

“Our rigorous test of this potential secondary outcome suggests what several past correlational studies have reported, that faith in the capabilities and competence of police and the effectiveness of police at reducing crime can improve informal social control (Kochel, 2012, 2017; Sargeant, 2015; Sargeant et al., 2013;…”

“…policing studies, and they hypothesize that this might have impacted their ability to observe impacts upon crime and community outcomes (see also Hinkle, Weisburd, Famega, & Ready, 2013) Hot spots policing focused on higher crime settings like those we examine might lead to stronger community…”

“This is in some sense a suprising finding given prior arguments that problem solving will increase community cohesion and informal social controls, (e.g. Braga, McDevitt, & Pierce, 2006; Braga & Weisburd, 2010).”

“Like others who have surveyed high crime areas, our response is not enviable (e.g., Ferguson & Mindel, 2007 Pashea and Kochel (2016) and Weiss and Bailar (2002) discuss the difficulties of conducting surveys in high crime areas, including language barriers, residential mobility, distrust of…”

“Even in a developing nation, Kochel (2012, 2013) found that communities that reported that police delivered quality and competent police services and had lower levels of police misconduct reported more collective efficacy and less crime.”

“…and Weitzer, 2003; Silver and Miller, 2004); (2) that police legitimacy encourages collective efficacy (Kochel, 2012; LaFree, 1998); and (3) that certain types of policing strategies help build collective efficacy (Kochel and Weisburd, 2019; Renauer, 2007; Sargeant et al., 2013; Scott, 2002).”

“This possibility is salient to hot spots policing as Kochel and Weisburd (2018) note that increased community perceptions of police legitimacy and trust can cultivate collective efficacy, consistent with the cooperation hypothesis.”

“Of the policing interventions tested, three were of some form of community policing intervention (Kochel and Weisburd, 2019; Lombardo and Donner, 2018; Tuffin et al., 2006), one was of an intervention specifically designed to increase collective action and collective efficacy (Weisburd et al.”

“An experiment by Kochel and Weisburd (2019) found that an increase in directed patrol (police presence) modestly enhanced social cohesion, informal control, and collective efficacy.”

“), they do suggest that police departments may be well-served by choosing hot spot policing strategies that have the potential to both reduce crime while also improving citizens’ experiences, such as problem-oriented policing (Kochel and Weisburd 2018).”

“Then that might be connected to the cascades literature and the collective efficacy literature, partly on the simple basis that police patrol in high crime areas can give residents the confidence to walk the streets in order to build collective efficacy (Kochel & Weisburd, 2019).”

“…(Minnesota) (Weisburd et al., 2021), Jersey City (Hinkle & Weisburd, 2008; also see Weisburd et al., 2006), St. Louis County (Kochel et al., 2015; Kochel & Weisburd, 2017, 2019), and the California cities of Redlands, Ontario, and Colton (Weisburd et al., 2011), have investigated the impacts of…”

“Moreover, recent evidence suggests hot spots policing strategies may also improve collective efficacy at crime hot spots by increasing informal social control to promote societal norms and rules among residents (Kochel and Weisburd 2019).”

“…findings on the optimal length of hot spot patrols that have substantially influenced subsequent research and practice (e.g., Ariel et al., 2016, 2020; Barnes et al., 2020; Kochel & Weisburd, 2018; Koper et al., 2015, 2020; Rosenfeld et al., 2014; Telep et al., 2014; Williams & Coupe, 2017).”

“These models can then be used by law enforcement or other stake-holders to allocate resources for crime prevention [16], [19], community policing [1], collective efficacy initiatives [21], or other interventions.”

“However, later experiments found that a substantial increase in police presence only modestly improves collective efficacy [178].”

“The willingness to intervene in neighborhood issues often depends on the extent to which members of the public impose social pressure on others to comply with shared norms (Carr 2003; Rinehart Kochel and Weisburd 2019).”

“In a more recent RCT, Weisburd et al. (2021) examined the impact of a policing intervention designed to bolster collective efficacy and collective action in crime hot spots in one Midwestern city.”

“In this regard, studies have shown that trust in the police positively affects informal social control (Rinehart Kochel & Weisburd, 2019).”

“Besides, failure to address criminal activities can lead to insecurity within the neighborhood (Rinehart & Weisburd, 2019).”

“Finally, there is a gap concerning contradictory findings in the community-policing literature: while Koper et al. (2022) and Kochel and Weisburd (2019) argue that partnership-based hotspot policing strengthens collective efficacy, a recent multi-country randomized field trial by Blair et al.…”

“…benefits, including reducing social and physical disorder, improving public opinions about police efforts, enhancing public satisfaction, and fostering social cohesion and collective efficacy (Braga et al., 1999; haberman et al., 2016; Kochel & weisburd, 2017, 2019; sherman et al., 1995).”

“Failure to confront criminal activity may result in neighborhood unrest (Rinehart & Weisburd, 2019).”

“Исследования показывают , что полиция может способствовать снижению уровня преступности посредством эффектив - ных услуг , сведения к минимуму неправомерных действий и улучшения процес - суальной справедливости (Kochel, Weisburd, 2019 ).”