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Reaction Time Distribution Analysis of Neuropsychological Performance in an ADHD Sample
Abstract
Differences in reaction time (RT) variability have been documented between children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Most previous research has utilized estimates of normal distributions to examine variability. Using a nontraditional approach, the present study evaluated RT distributions on the Conners' Continuous Performance Test in children and adolescents from the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD sample compared to a matched sample of normal controls (n = 65 pairs). The ex-Gaussian curve was used to model RT and RT variability. Children with ADHD demonstrated faster RT associated with the normal portion of the curve and a greater proportion of abnormally slow responses associated with the exponential portion of the curve. These results contradict previous interpretation that children with ADHD have slower than normal responding and demonstrate why slower RT is found when estimates of variability assume normal Gaussian distributions. Further, results of this study suggest that the greater number of abnormally long RTs of children with ADHD reflect attentional lapses on some but not all trials.
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In the citing paper
“Research using ex-Gaussian parameters has shown that ADHD-related RTV is largely the result of an elevation in tau [10,13,32].”
From Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review (2012) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“In ADHD research, RTV in ADHD is typically interpreted (at least implicitly) as reflecting occasional lapses in attention”
From Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review (2012) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“In a more recent study using a Go/No-go (“continuous performance”) task designed to assess response (including inhibitory) control, investigators found ADHD was associated with abnormalities in both the normal (increased sigma) and exponential (increased tau) components of reaction time distribution (Hervey et al., 2006).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Analyses characterizing ISV in ADHD has revealed a pattern of occasional responses with unusually long reaction time, with the majority of responses being comparable to comparison groups (Castellanos et al., 2005; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, King Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Statistical analyses utilizing comparison of group means and variability (i.e., standard deviation), may mask such responses by treating them as outliers or by treating them as “noise” that becomes averaged with other responses (Hervey et al., 2006).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, our findings and those generated by Hervey et al. (2006) indicate that under conditions requiring higher degrees of response control, increased variability in ADHD is present throughout the RT distribution, regardless of ADHD subtype, reflecting inefficiency in neural mechanisms critical to engaging a state of preparedness to respond.”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Our findings of increases in normal (i.e., sigma) as well as exponential (i.e., tau) variability are consistent with that seen in a prior study of ADHD in which ex-Gaussian analysis was applied to a different Go/No-go task (Hervey et al., 2006); in that study children with ADHD also showed increased variability in both the normal and exponential portions of the RT distribution.”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“an Ex-Gaussian analysis revealed that, compared with controls, the ADHD group had lower estimates of m (ie, faster RTs) but a greater t (ie, more long RTs).”
From Understanding the Effects of Stimulant Medications on Cognition in Individuals with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Decade of Progress (2011) · cites this paper as Hervey et al (2006)
In the citing paper
“On the basis of standard analyses, the ADHD group had a longer MRT and greater SD and skewness.”
From Understanding the Effects of Stimulant Medications on Cognition in Individuals with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Decade of Progress (2011) · cites this paper as Hervey et al (2006)
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“This would also provide the opportunity for direct theoretical testing, something that several authors have suggested is highly important for advancements in the study of ADHD (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002; Sergeant, 2000).”
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Items 101–200 of 262
Spinelli, S., Joel, S., Nelson, T. E., Vasa, R. A., Pekar, J. J., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.03.014 · Cited by 37
Helps, S. K., Broyd, S. J., James, C. J., Karl, A., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2009) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803.23.4.191 · Cited by 35
Effects of anterior cingulate cortex lesions on a continuous performance task for mice
Hvoslef‐Eide, M., Nilsson, S. R. O., Hailwood, J. M., Robbins, T. W., Saksida, L. M., Mar, A. C., & Bussey, T. J. (2018) · Brain and Neuroscience Advances · doi:10.1177/2398212818772962 · Cited by 35
“In this probe, the ITI increased from 2 to 4 s between sessions based on the prediction that longer ITIs challenge behavioural inhibition by extending the time period during which the withholding of responding is required (Conners et al., 2003; Epstein et al., 2007; Hervey et al., 2006; Rose et al., 2001).”
BackgroundHarvey, R. C., Jordan, C. J., Tassin, D. H., Moody, K. R., Dwoskin, L. P., & Kantak, K. M. (2013) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2013.01.027 · Cited by 34
It’s about time: The role of temporal variability in improving assessment of executive functioning
McKinney, T. L., Euler, M. J., & Butner, J. (2019) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2019.1704434 · Cited by 36
ExGUtils: A Python Package for Statistical Analysis With the ex-Gaussian Probability Density
Moret‐Tatay, C., Gamermann, D., Navarro‐Pardo, E., & de Córdoba, P. F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00612 · Cited by 35
“Going back to the point on characterizing the data with a specific distribution, there is one distribution that has been widely employed in the literature when fitting RT data: the exponentially modified Gaussian distribution [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].”
MethodVéronneau-Veilleux, F., Robaey, P., Ursino, M., & Nekka, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncom.2022.849323 · Cited by 32
“They generally make more errors than controls and their reaction times are paradoxically both faster and slower, and more variable overall, as compared with healthy controls (Hervey et al., 2006; Huang-Pollock et al., 2012).”
BackgroundProactive inhibitory control varies with task context
Wardak, C., Ramanoël, S., Guipponi, O., Boulinguez, P., & Hamed, S. B. (2012) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08264.x · Cited by 41
“individual gradient is very reminiscent of what is observed in patients, and in particular ADHD patients (Hervey et al., 2006; Broyd et al., 2011), exhibiting either predominant attentional deficits, predominant executive deficits, or a mixture of both.”
BackgroundResultWalk, A. M., Edwards, C., Baumgartner, N. W., Chojnacki, M. R., Covello, A. R., Reeser, G. E., Hammond, B. R., Renzi‐Hammond, L. M., & Khan, N. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00183 · Cited by 32
“Previous work indicates that measures of dispersion such as intraindividual variability may be more sensitive to cognitive dysfunction than measures of central tendency (LethSteensen et al., 2000; Hervey et al., 2006; MacDonald et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSalum, G. A., Sato, J. R., Manfro, A. G., Pan, P. M., Gadelha, A., do Rosário, M. C., Polanczyk, G. V., Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., & Rohde, L. A. (2019) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-018-0257-x · Cited by 34
Speed-accuracy tradeoff by a control signal with balanced excitation and inhibition
Lo, C., Wang, C.-T., & Wang, X. (2015) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00845.2013 · Cited by 39
Peijnenborgh, J., Hurks, P. P. M., Aldenkamp, A. P., van der Spek, E. D., Rauterberg, M., Vles, J. S. H., & Hendriksen, J. G. M. (2016) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/games.5997 · Cited by 35
“This indicates impulsiveness, motor restlessness, and hyperactive behavior, as is also suggested by Hervey and colleagues [46].”
ResultKarantinos, T., Tsoukas, E., Mantas, A., Κάττουλας, Ε. Ν., Stefanis, N. C., Evdokimidis, I., & Smyrnis, N. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.10.031 · Cited by 30
“…to notice here that although in an initial study (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000) only tau dissociated patients from controls in two subsequent studies (Hervey et al., 2006; Vaurio et al., 2009) both tau and sigma were significantly greater for patients with ADHD compared to healthy controls which is…”
InfluentialBurke, D., Linder, S. M., Hirsch, J. R., Dey, T., Kana, D., Ringenbach, S. D. R., Schindler, D., & Alberts, J. L. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116633752 · Cited by 32
“The lower bound was 100 ms for both the SRT and CRT task while the upper bounds were set at 500 ms and 800 ms for SRT and CRT, respectively (Hervey et al., 2006; Luce, 1986).”
BackgroundMethodBrandes-Aitken, A. N., Anguera, J. A., Rolle, C. E., Desai, S. S., Demopoulos, C., Skinner, S. N., Gazzaley, A. H., & Marco, E. J. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000404 · Cited by 30
Longitudinal Trajectories of Sustained Attention Development in Children and Adolescents with ADHD
Thomson, P., Vijayakumar, N., Johnson, K. A., Malpas, C. B., Sciberras, E., Efron, D., Hazell, P., & Silk, T. J. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00698-5 · Cited by 35
Jitter Reduces Response-Time Variability in ADHD
Lee, R. W. Y., Jacobson, L. A., Pritchard, A. E., Ryan, M., Yu, Q., DENCKLA, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H., & Mahone, E. M. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712464269 · Cited by 31
“…can mask the effect of extremely slow or fast RTs, exGaussian approaches have become increasingly popular among researchers investigating ADHD and other neuropsychiatric disorders (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000; McAuley, Yap, Christ, & White, 2006; Vaurio et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSalunkhe, G., Weissbrodt, K., Feige, B., Saville, C. W. N., Berger, A., Dundon, N. M., Bender, S., Smyrnis, N., Beauducel, A., Biscaldi, M., et al. (2018) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718778114 · Cited by 31
“Several studies found that increased tau, representing a higher number of particularly slow responses, differentiates ADHD patients from controls (Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Feige et al., 2013; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, King, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000) and may serve as an independent endophenotype for th…”
BackgroundEffect of d-amphetamine on inhibition and motor planning as a function of baseline performance
Allman, A.-A., Benkelfat, C., Durand, F., Sibon, I., Dagher, A., Leyton, M., Baker, G. B., & O’Driscoll, G. A. (2010) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1912-x · Cited by 28
“2008) to working memory (Manoach 2003) and inhibition (Hervey et al. 2006; Karatekin et al. 2009).”
Rieger, T., & Miller, J. O. (2019) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-019-01176-4 · Cited by 28
Keith, J. R., Blackwood, M. E., Mathew, R. T., & Lecci, L. B. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0655-0 · Cited by 28
Neurocognitive Profiles in Children With ADHD and Their Predictive Value for Functional Outcomes
Bergwerff, C. E., Luman, M., Weeda, W. D., & Oosterlaan, J. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716688533 · Cited by 28
“Our findings are in line with previous work on ex-Gaussian parameters, showing that children with the combined presentation of ADHD had fast processing speed and increased attentional lapses (Hervey et al., 2006; Tamm et al., 2012).”
BackgroundResultAdamo, N., Hodsoll, J., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J. K., & Kuntsi, J. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0457-z · Cited by 28
The Quantified Behavioral Test—A Confirmatory Test in the Diagnostic Process of Adult ADHD?
Brunkhorst-Kanaan, N., Verdenhalven, M., Kittel‐Schneider, S., Vainieri, I., Reif, A., & Grimm, O. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00216 · Cited by 28
“Analyses on RT data from participants with ADHD suggest that ultra-long RTs (t) are specific for ADHD (35, 36).”
BackgroundGreimel, E., Herpertz‐Dahlmann, B., Günther, T., Vitt, C. M., & Konrad, K. (2007) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0815-4 · Cited by 27
“Another meta-analytic review (Losier et al. 1996) and recent studies (Hervey et al. 2006; Johnson et al. 2007; Klein et al. 2007) stress hat reaction times in alerting tasks tend to be within the normal range, whereas deficits in sustaining attention and increased variability of reaction time are…”
Rapid automatized naming (RAN) in children with ADHD: An ex-Gaussian analysis
Ryan, M., Jacobson, L. A., Hague, C. D., Bellows, A., DENCKLA, M. B., & Mahone, E. M. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1172560 · Cited by 29
“dren with ADHD, the skewing of the response-time distribution appears to be exacerbated due to the presence of more frequent “very slow” responses (interpreted as lapses of attention or lapses “off task”), which appear in the extreme tail of the distribution (Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundKollins, S. H., McClernon, F. J., & Epstein, J. N. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.09.019 · Cited by 26
Self-citationDevelopmental differences in intra‐individual variability in children with ADHD and ASD
van Belle, J., van Hulst, B. M., & Durston, S. (2015) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12417 · Cited by 32
“These infrequent, extremely slow responses are uniquely captured by tau (Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Geurts et al., 2008; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
BackgroundBehavioural Measures of Infant Activity but Not Attention Associate with Later Preschool ADHD Traits
Goodwin, A., Hendry, A. J., Mason, L., Bazelmans, T., Ali, J. B., Pasco, G., Charman, T., Jones, E. J. H., Johnson, M. H., & The BASIS/STAARS Team (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11050524 · Cited by 25
“Reaction time variability (RTV) is increased in some children with ADHD, and is often thought to reflect lapses in attention [60,61] (though other theoretical models of RTV in ADHD have also been proposed [62]).”
BackgroundFinger tapping and pre-attentive sensorimotor timing in adults with ADHD
Hove, M. J., Gravel, N., Spencer, R. M. C., & Valera, E. M. (2017) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-017-5089-y · Cited by 25
“2013) might stem not from systematically more variable responses across all trials, but rather from attention lapses (Hervey et al. 2006; cf. Schmiedek et al. 2007).”
BackgroundDistinct Response Time Distributions in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Subtypes
Querné, L., & Berquin, P. C. (2008) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054708323006 · Cited by 23
“It can also be suggested that the distribution of responses in ADHD depends on whether when the task involves inhibition of a prepotent response (go/no-go in Hervey et al., 2006) or visuospatial location (multiple choice in the present study and in Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialConners’ Continuous Performance Test Third Edition
Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., & Ayearst, L. E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56782-2_1535-2 · Cited by 25
Self-citationElectrophysiological Correlates of Response Time Variability During a Sustained Attention Task
Machida, K., Murias, M., & Johnson, K. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00363 · Cited by 27
“Greater RTV, expressed as sigma and tau in the model, has often been observed in ADHD populations (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Hervey et al., 2006; Buzy et al., 2009; Vaurio et al., 2009).”
BackgroundLam, S.-L., Criaud, M., Alegría, A. A., Barker, G. J., Giampietro, V., & Rubia, K. (2020) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102291 · Cited by 26
Delaveau, P., Sanchez, T. A., Steffen, R. E., Deschet, K., Jabourian, M., Perlbarg, V., Gasparetto, E. L., Dubal, S., Silva, J. C. E., & Fossati, P. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23603 · Cited by 24
“Several behavioral investigations have shown that measures of dispersion or intraindividual variability (IIV) can provide information about performance that is not detectable by the mean [e.g., Hervey et al., 2006].”
BackgroundModels of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Killeen, P. R. (2019) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2019.01.001 · Cited by 25
Schumacher, J., Cromarty, R. A., Gallagher, P., Firbank, M., Thomas, A. J., Kaiser, M., Blamire, A. M., O'Brien, J. T., Peraza, L. R., & Taylor, J. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09323-y · Cited by 23
Hwang-Gu, S.-L., Lin, H.-Y., Chen, Y.-C., Tseng, Y.-H., Hsu, W.-Y., Chou, M.-C., Chou, W.-J., Wu, Y.-Y., & Gau, S. S.-F. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2018.1452151 · Cited by 22
“The ex-Gaussian approach has revealed that RTISV is associated with ADHD (Hervey et al., 2006; Hwang-Gu et al., 2013; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000) and ASD (Geurts et al.”
BackgroundToussaint, A. C., Petermann, F., Schmidt, S., Petermann, U., Müller, G. G.-V., Sinatchkin, M., & Gerber, W. (2010) · Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1661-4747/a000049 · Cited by 22
Thissen, A. J. A. M., Luman, M., Hartman, C., Hoekstra, P., van Lieshout, M., Franke, B., Oosterlaan, J., Rommelse, N. N. J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2014) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.05.015 · Cited by 22
Which Measures From a Sustained Attention Task Best Predict ADHD Group Membership?
Machida, K., Barry, E., Mulligan, A., Gill, M., Robertson, I. H., Lewis, F. C., Green, B. C., Kelly, S. P., Bellgrove, M. A., & Johnson, K. A. (2022) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547221081266 · Cited by 24
“Other research has also reported contrasting findings between MRT and mu, where individuals with ADHD exhibited slower MRT and faster mu (Gu et al., 2013; Hervey et al., 2006; Hwang-Gu et al., 2019).”
ResultAmengual, J. L., Bello, F. D., Hamed, S. B., & Hamed, S. B. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32385-y · Cited by 20
Jordan, C. J., Taylor, D. M., Dwoskin, L. P., & Kantak, K. M. (2015) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.10.017 · Cited by 23
“Higher values in these measures are thought to represent attentional lapses during testing in children and teens with ADHD [74,75].”
BackgroundJiménez‐Figueroa, G., Ardila-Duarte, C., Pineda, D. A., Acosta-López, J. E., Cervantes-Henríquez, M. L., Pineda‐Alhucema, W., Cervantes-Gutiérrez, J., Quintero-Ibarra, M., Sánchez-Rojas, M., Velez, J. I., et al. (2017) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-017-0223-z · Cited by 24
Ni, H., Gu, S.-L. H., Lin, H., Lin, Y., Yang, L.-K., Huang, H., & Gau, S. S. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116632377 · Cited by 22
“…ADHD from healthy controls across tasks, including the chosen four-choice warned RT task (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000), Conners’ continuous performance test (CCPT) (Gu et al., 2013; Hervey et al., 2006), working memory task (Buzy et al., 2009), and inhibition task (Vaurio et al., 2009).”
MethodAttention Networks in ADHD Adults after Working Memory Training with a Dual n-Back Task
Dotare, M., Bader, M., Mesrobian, S. K., Asai, Y., Villa, A. E. P., & Lintas, A. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10100715 · Cited by 21
“Several studies showed that ADHD were characterized by smaller values of parameter μ than controls [30,32,97,98].”
BackgroundBalogh, L., Kakuszi, B., Papp, S., Tombor, L., Bitter, I., & Czobor, P. (2017) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.16100183 · Cited by 20
Osmon, D. C., Kazakov, D., Santos, O. A., & Kassel, M. T. (2018) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-018-9382-8 · Cited by 23
Henríquez, M., Zamorano, F. J., Engel, F. R., & Domínguez, F. A. (2010) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.5002.2009082 · Cited by 19
“Esta heterogeneidad se expresa como variabilidad en el comportamiento y en las características de los sujetos, tanto si se les observa como individuos aislados como si se les estudia grupalmente, y es uno de los factores que disminuye el poder estadístico de los estudios genotípicos y fenotípicos en el TDAH [5-10].”
BackgroundRates of Effort Test Failure in Children With ADHD: An Exploratory Study
Harrison, A. G., Flaro, L., & Armstrong, I. T. (2014) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.850581 · Cited by 21
“…globally unable to sustain attention, it has been suggested that those with ADHD have frequent attentional lapses that result in omission errors (e.g., Hervey et al., 2006) and performance variability (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002; Kuntsi, Oosterlaan, & Stevenson, 2001; Kuntsi & Stevenson, 2001).”
BackgroundPerformance on a strategy set shifting task in rats following adult or adolescent cocaine exposure
Kantak, K. M., Barlow, N., Tassin, D. H., Brisotti, M. F., & Jordan, C. J. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3598-y · Cited by 20
“These latter measures in human subjects reflect executive function impairment (Drechsler et al. 2010; Hervey et al. 2006; Reeve and Schandler 2001; Seidman et al. 1997), suggesting that passive cocaine exposure in adolescent rats disrupts some aspects of executive function, but not behavioral…”
BackgroundWawrzyniak, A. J., Hamer, M., Steptoe, A., & Endrighi, R. (2016) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12617 · Cited by 20
Li, F., Zheng, Y., Smith, S. D., Shic, F., Moore, C. C., Zheng, X., Qi, Y., Liu, Z., & Leckman, J. F. (2016) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-016-0135-2 · Cited by 20
Impaired math achievement in patients with acute vestibular neuritis
Moser, I., Vibert, D., Caversaccio, M. D., & Mast, F. W. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.032 · Cited by 21
“In complex arithmetic problems, updating is needed to replace items held in working memory with newer, more relevant information for the solution of a given (arithmetic) problem (Hitch, 1978; Morris and Jones, 1990).”
Spangler, D. P., Williams, D. P., Speller, L. F., Brooks, J., & Thayer, J. F. (2018) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.01.009 · Cited by 20
Bella-Fernández, M., Martín-Moratinos, M., Li, C., Wang, P., & Blasco-Fontecilla, H. (2023) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-023-09587-2 · Cited by 26
Tang, X., Seymour, K. E., Crocetti, D., Miller, M. I., Mostofsky, S. H., & Rosch, K. S. (2019) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2019.03.036 · Cited by 19
Raiker, J. S., Friedman, L. M., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., & Rapport, M. D. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716686182 · Cited by 21
Myatchin, I., Lemiere, J., Danckaerts, M., & Lagae, L. G. (2012) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0253-1 · Cited by 18
“According to some studies, high variability is indicative of fluctuations or lapses in attention [16, 17].”
BackgroundResultDistinct and similar patterns of emotional development in adolescents and young adults
Bos, D. J., Dreyfuss, M., Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Galván, A., Casey, B. J., & Jones, R. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21942 · Cited by 21
“…Disorder (ADHD), where increased tau has been associated with attentional lapses (Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Geurts et al., 2008; Hervey et al., 2006; Karalunas, Geurts, Konrad, Bender, & Nigg, 2014; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000) and diagnostic differences in…”
BackgroundSpangler, D. P., Cox, K. R., Thayer, J. F., Brooks, J., & Friedman, B. H. (2020) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.08.018 · Cited by 19
Gao, Z., Duberg, K., Warren, S. L., Zheng, L. J., Hinshaw, S. P., Menon, V., & Cai, W. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57685-x · Cited by 22
“We also examined IIRV, quanti fi ed by the sigma and tau of the ex-Gaussian model 60 , in the Certain and Uncertain Go trials separately.”
InfluentialSelf-citationSeymour, K. E., Rosch, K. S., Tiedemann, A., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2019) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2019.06.009 · Cited by 24
“Tau measures the extent to which an individual displays infrequent, abnormally slow responses that may reflect attentional lapses (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000), reflecting a specific component of RT variability not captured by the more widely used standard deviation of RT.”
BackgroundHwang-Gu, S.-L., Chen, Y., Liang, S. H., Ni, H., Lin, H., Lin, C.-F., & Gau, S. S. (2019) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-00508-z · Cited by 17
Variability of Reaction Time as a Marker of Executive Function Impairments in Fibromyalgia
Duschek, S., de Guevara, C. M. L., Serrano, M. J. F., Montoro, C. I., Pelegrina, S., & del Paso, G. A. R. (2022) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2022/1821684 · Cited by 17
Bilingualism can cause enhanced monitoring and occasional delayed responses in a flanker task
Markiewicz, R., Mazaheri, A., & Krott, A. (2022) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15863 · Cited by 21
“…of response conflict and conflict-resolving inhibitory control processes (Heathcote et al., 1991; Kane & Engle, 2003; Spieler et al., 2000; Zhou & Krott, 2018), whereas τ mirrors attentional control to maintain the task goal (Epstein et al., 2011; Hervey et al., 2006; Spieler et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMemory for Action Rules and Reaction Time Variability in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Shahar, N., Teodorescu, A. R., Karmon-Presser, A., Anholt, G. E., & Meiran, N. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.01.003 · Cited by 16
Galloway-Long, H., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.06.005 · Cited by 18
Slobodin, O. (2020) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000508041 · Cited by 16
Chang, S. E., Lenartowicz, A., Hellemann, G., Uddin, L. Q., & Bearden, C. E. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2022.11.003 · Cited by 14
“Individuals with ADHD exhibit greater tau and greater sigma on reaction-time tasks, and neural mechanisms supporting tau and sigma may differ since they follow different developmental patterns (1,5,49-52).”
BackgroundBourel‐Ponchel, E., Querné, L., Moing, A. G. L., Delignières, A., de Broca, A., & Berquin, P. C. (2010) · European Journal of Paediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2010.08.008 · Cited by 14
Ging-Jehli, N. R., Arnold, L. E., Roley‐Roberts, M. E., & DeBeus, R. J. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211020087 · Cited by 13
“The CPT is a commonly used instrument to study cognition in ADHD (Corbett & Constantine, 2006; Epstein et al., 2011; Hervey et al., 2006; Nichols & Waschbusch, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationLiu, Z.-Z., Qu, H.-J., Tian, Z.-L., Han, M.-J., Fan, Y., Ge, L., Zang, Y., & Zhang, H. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184476 · Cited by 12
Mairena, M. Á., Martino, A. D., Domínguez, C., Gómez-Guerrero, L., Gioia, G. A., Petkova, E., & Castellanos, F. X. (2012) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-011-0237-6 · Cited by 13
“Slow oscillations in RT might be a more suitable index for translational linkage to underlying physiological processes than other indices of RT variability [15, 20, 23].”
Impulsive and Omission Errors: Potential Temporal Processing Endophenotypes in ADHD
Acosta-López, J. E., Suárez, I., Pineda, D. A., Cervantes-Henríquez, M. L., Martínez-Banfi, M. L., Lozano-Gutiérrez, S. G., Ahmad, M., Pineda‐Alhucema, W., Noguera-Machacón, L. M., Hoz, M. D. L., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091218 · Cited by 16
Thomson, P., Johnson, K. A., Malpas, C. B., Efron, D., Sciberras, E., & Silk, T. J. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720911988 · Cited by 13
“Large tau has since been consistently observed in ADHD samples (Hervey et al., 2006; Kofler et al., 2013; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Tye et al., 2016; Vaurio et al., 2009), taking the place of SD of RT as the most appropriate measure of RTV in ADHD studies (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
BackgroundClinical Use of Continuous Performance Tests to Diagnose Children With ADHD
Park, J., Kim, C., Ahn, J.-H., Joo, Y., Shin, M., Lee, H.-J., & Kim, H. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716658125 · Cited by 14
Clemente, A., D, J. F. D., Imms, P. E., Burmester, A., Dhollander, T., Wilson, P. H., Poudel, G. R., & Caeyenberghs, K. (2021) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13871 · Cited by 12
Gauthier, J. M., Tassin, D. H., Dwoskin, L. P., & Kantak, K. M. (2014) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.04.018 · Cited by 13
Wiker, T., Norbom, L. B., Beck, D., Agartz, I., Andreassen, O. A., Alnæs, D., Dahl, A., Eilertsen, E. M., Moberget, T., Ystrøm, E., et al. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2023.03.010 · Cited by 13
“This makes it challenging to make speci fi c inferences about the nature of increased IIV because these measures are a sum of data from many trials rather than providing information about the unimodal, positively skewed distribution observed in RT data (46,47).”
Bieleninik, Ł., Gradys, G., Dzhambov, A. M., Walczak‐Kozłowska, T., Lipowska, K., Łada‐Maśko, A., Sitnik‐Warchulska, K., Anikiej‐Wiczenbach, P., Harciarek, M., & Lipowska, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1246490 · Cited by 13
“It seems possible that this general slowing might indicate a variety of unspecified difficulties with basic cognitive processes (Hervey et al., 2006), and higher Reaction Time Variability reflects greater fluctuations and lapses of attention among children with ADHD (Van der Molen, 1996).”
BackgroundLee, M.-W., Yang, N.-J., Mok, H., Yang, R., Chiu, Y.-H., & Lin, L. (2024) · Pediatrics & Neonatology · doi:10.1016/j.pedneo.2023.11.007 · Cited by 11
Slow drift rate predicts ADHD symptomology over and above executive dysfunction
Feldman, J. S., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2021) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2021.1902490 · Cited by 12
Clark, U. S., Rentería, M. A., Hegde, R. R., & Morgello, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00006 · Cited by 11
“Elevations in RT-IIV arise, in part, due to an increase in attentional lapses (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Hervey et al., 2006; Tamm et al., 2012), which are thought to reflect an inefficient regulation of cognitive processes (West et al.”
BackgroundMachida, K., & Johnson, K. A. (2019) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2019.0671 · Cited by 12
“…that tau is significantly greater in individuals with ADHD compared with controls, quite possibly indicating more occurrences of lapses in attention (Hervey et al., 2006; Keith et al., 2017; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Wolfers et al., 2015), although what tau actually represents is a matter of…”
Free testosterone levels, attentional control, and processing speed performance in aging men.
Martin, D. M., Burns, N. R., & Wittert, G. (2009) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0014182 · Cited by 11
Ojuri, B., Deronda, A. C., Plotkin, M. R., Mostofsky, S. H., & Rosch, K. S. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241237242 · Cited by 11
“This model may be more advantageous than traditional measures of response speed and variability (mean and SD of RT) for examination of ISV in ADHD as it separates response speed and variability (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
MethodAli, S., Macoun, S. J., Bedir, B., & MacDonald, S. W. S. (2019) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2019.1617249 · Cited by 10
“Many theories propose a relationship between IIV and attention capacity; lapses of attention result in unusually long RTs that in turn contribute to increased IIV (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
BackgroundYu, Y., Xu, H., Xu, Y., Lu, F. Y., & Li, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.532778 · Cited by 9
“All participants met criteria as follows: (1) able to read and understand the questionnaire; (2) had normal or corrected normal vision; (3) no evidence of substance abuse or dependence in the past 3 months.”
BackgroundSimple reaction time in 8–9-year old children environmentally exposed to PCBs
Šovčíková, E., Wimmerová, S., Strémy, M., Kotianová, J., Loffredo, C. A., Palkovičová, Ľ., Chovancová, J., Čonka, K., Lancz, K., & Trnovec, T. (2015) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2015.10.005 · Cited by 9
Berwid, O. G., Halperin, J. M., Johnson, R., & Marks, D. J. (2013) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.762760 · Cited by 10
“These findings are consistent with a well-established literature indicating attentional lapses among children with ADHD resulting in more variable performance on reaction-time tasks (Castellanos et al., 2005; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
BackgroundResultChiang, H., Lin, H., Tseng, W. I., Hwang-Gu, S.-L., Shang, C., & Gau, S. S. (2021) · Journal of the Formosan Medical Association · doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2021.06.003 · Cited by 9
Intratask Variability As a Correlate for DRD4 and SLC6A3 Variants
Henríquez‐Henríquez, M., Villarroel, L. A., Henríquez, H., Zamorano, F. J., Rothhammer, F., & Aboitiz, F. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712455844 · Cited by 9
“Subsequent findings imply that ADHD children could present alterations in normal and exponential components of the RT distributions (Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodMoss, R. A., Finkelmeyer, A. E., Robinson, L. J., Thompson, J. M., Watson, S., Ferrier, I. N., & Gallagher, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00106 · Cited by 9
“In attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), faster overall responding (μ) as well increases in excessively slow responding (τ) has been described (31, 32).”
BackgroundDetection and Attention for Auditory, Visual, and Audiovisual Speech in Children with Hearing Loss
Jerger, S. W., Damian, M. F., Karl, C., & Abdi, H. (2019) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000798 · Cited by 9
“Disorder (ADHD) than in the control group (Hervey et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAttention regulation in women with ADHD and women with bipolar disorder: An ex-Gaussian approach
Vainieri, I., Adamo, N., Michelini, G., Kitsune, V., Asherson, P. J., & Kuntsi, J. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112729 · Cited by 11
“For sigma and mu, the findings are less consistent, with some studies reporting increased sigma (Buzy et al., 2009; Gmehlin et al., 2014; Hervey et al., 2006; Vaurio et al., 2009) or decreased mu (Hervey et al.”
InfluentialKim, E. J., Kim, Y., Seo, W. S., Lee, S. H., Park, E. J., Bae, S., & Shin, D. (2017) · Journal of korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.5765/jkacap.2017.28.2.46 · Cited by 8
The Neural and Neurocognitive Determinants of ADHD
Gopin, C. B., & Healey, D. M. (2011) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2011.575700 · Cited by 9
“However, it is also possible that such variability is itself secondary to lapses in sustained attention (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundRoshannia, S., Maleki-Karamolah, S., Akhlaghi, Z., & Kordestani-Moghadam, P. (2021) · International Clinical Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.34172/icnj.2021.14 · Cited by 7
Mutic, S., Freiherr, J., Cavazzana, A., Rocha, M., Soares, S. C., & Parma, V. (2019) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112562 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Hervey, A. S., Epstein, J. N., Curry, J. F., Tonev, S., Eugene Arnold, L., Keith Conners, C., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., & Hechtman, L.
- Affiliations
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Duke Medical Center (US)
- Duke University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Montreal Children's Hospital (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Epstein, Jeffery N.
- Venue
- Child Neuropsychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 125-140
- ISSN
- 0929-7049 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-4136
- OpenAlex
- W2148800933
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 6.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Child Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Knowledge Bank (The Ohio State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (U01 MH50447, U01MH50461, U01MH50440, U01MH050467, U01MH50454, U01MH050447, U01MH050440, K24MH064478, U01MH050453, U01MH50467, K24 MH64478, U01MH050461, U01MH50453, U01MH050454)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reaction time variability, reaction time distribution, ex-Gaussian distribution, Conners' Continuous Performance Test, attentional lapses, children and adolescents, neuropsychological performance
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time, Severity of Illness Index
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